Effect of hot water immersion on acute physiological responses following resistance exercise

Purpose: Hot water immersion (HWI) is a strategy theorised to enhance exercise recovery. However, the acute physiological responses to HWI following resistance exercise are yet to be determined. Methods: The effect of HWI on intramuscular temperature (IMT), muscle function, muscle soreness and blood markers of muscle cell disruption and inflammatory processes after resistance exercise was assessed. Sixteen resistance trained males performed resistance exercise, followed by either 10 min HWI at 40°C or 10 min passive recovery (PAS). Results: Post-intervention, the increase in IMT at all depths was greater for HWI compared to PAS, however this difference had disappeared by 1 h post at depths of 1 and 2 cm, and by 2 h post at a depth of 3 cm. There were no differences between groups for muscle function, muscle soreness or any blood markers. Conclusion: These results suggest that HWI is a viable means of heat therapy to support a greater IMT following resistance exercise. Recovery of muscle function and muscle soreness is independent of acute changes in IMT associated with HWI.

A combination of cherry juice and cold water immersion does not enhance marathon recovery compared to either treatment in isolation: A randomized placebo-controlled trial

Purpose

Cherry juice (CJ) and cold water immersion (CWI) are both effective recovery strategies following strenuous endurance exercise. However, athletes routinely combine recovery interventions and less is known about the impact of a combined CJ and CWI protocol. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of combining CWI and CJ (a “cocktail” (CT)) on inflammation and muscle damage following a marathon.

Methods

A total 39 endurance trained males were randomly assigned to a placebo (PL), CWI, CJ, or CT group before completing a trail marathon run. Muscle damage (creatine kinase (CK)), muscle function (maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC)), and inflammation (interleukin-6 (IL-6); C-reactive protein (CRP)) were measured at baseline, immediately after marathon (only IL-6), 24 h, and 48 h after marathon.

Results

There were no statistically significant differences between groups and no group × time interaction effects for any of the dependent variables. Confidence intervals (CI) illustrated that CT had unclear effects on inflammation (IL-6; CRP) and MVIC, but may have increased CK to a greater extent than PL and CJ conditions.

Conclusion

There is no evidence of an additive effect of CJ and CWI when the treatments are used in conjunction with each other. On the contrary, combining CJ and CWI may result in slightly increased circulating CK.

Cold Water Immersion Offers No Functional or Perceptual Benefit Compared to a Sham Intervention During a Resistance Training Program

ABSTRACT

Wilson, LJ, Dimitriou, L, Hills, FA, Gondek, MB, van Wyk, A, Turek, V, Rivkin, T, Villiere, A, Jarvis, P, Miller, S, Turner, A, and Cockburn, E. Cold water immersion offers no functional or perceptual benefit compared to a sham intervention during a resistance training program. J Strength Cond Res 35(10): 2720-2727, 2021-Cold water immersion (CWI) is regularly used by athletes as a postexercise recovery strategy, but relatively little is understood about potential training adaptations associated with habitual use. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of repeated CWI or a sham intervention on adaptations to a lower body resistance training program. Thirteen men (26 ± 6 years; 83.6 ± 15.7 kg) familiar with resistance training were allocated into a CWI (10 minutes at 10° C) or sham group and completed 2 × 4-week blocks of lower body resistance training. Subjects completed a total of 16 training sessions (2 × session·week-1), with each session immediately followed by their allocated recovery intervention. Measures of perceptual markers, muscle function, and muscle architecture were recorded at baseline, midpoint, and post-training. Data were analyzed using factorial analysis of variances. The training program resulted in significant increases in muscle fibre pennation angle (p = 0.009), isometric peak force (p = 0.018), and 1/4 squat (p < 0.001) with no differences between groups (all p > 0.05). There were no differences in perceptual responses between groups. Despite the popularity of CWI as a postexercise recovery intervention, the findings from the present study demonstrated no functional or perceptual benefit compared with a sham intervention during progressive strength and power training. Furthermore, there was no detrimental impact of CWI on morphological adaptations after 16 exposures. These findings are important for athletes and practitioners wishing to use CWI as an acute recovery strategy after training, without blunting potential training adaptations.

Renal pelvic rupture, intrapelvic haematoma and retroperitoneal haemorrhage associated with obstructive ureterolithiasis in a cat

A neutered female cat presented with a 9-day history of hyporexia and depression. The referring veterinarian had identified moderate non-regenerative anaemia, haematuria and suspected unilateral obstructive ureterolithiasis. Subsequent ultrasonography revealed moderate distension of the left renal pelvis with echogenic material, ureteral distension and ureterolithiasis. A partial ureteral obstruction was suspected. After 4 days of medical management, there was further distension of the renal pelvis with well-delineated echogenic material and an accumulation of perinephric fluid. A left nephroureterectomy was performed. Renal pelvic rupture with intrapelvic haematoma and retroperitoneal haemorrhage was confirmed by histopathology. Eighteen months following surgery, the cat remained clinically well with normal renal values.

Assessing the usefulness of acute physiological responses following resistance exercise: sensitivity, magnitude of change, and time course of measures

A variety of strategies exist to modulate the acute physiological responses following resistance exercise aimed at enhancing recovery and/or adaptation processes. To assess the true impact of these strategies, it is important to know the ability of different measures to detect meaningful change. We investigated the sensitivity of measures used to quantify acute physiological responses to resistance exercise and constructed a physiological profile to characterise the magnitude of change and the time course of these responses. Eight males accustomed to regular resistance exercise performed experimental sessions during a “control week”, void of an exercise stimulus. The following week, termed the “exercise week”, participants repeated this sequence of experimental sessions, and they also performed a bout of lower-limb resistance exercise following the baseline assessments. Assessments were conducted at baseline and at 2, 6, 24, 48, 72, and 96 h after the intervention. On the basis of the signal-to-noise ratio, the most sensitive measures were maximal voluntary isometric contraction, 20-m sprint, countermovement jump peak force, rate of force development (100–200 ms), muscle soreness, Daily Analysis Of Life Demands For Athletes part B, limb girth, matrix metalloproteinase-9, interleukin-6, creatine kinase, and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein with ratios >1.5. Clear changes in these measures following resistance exercise were determined via magnitude-based inferences. These findings highlight measures that can detect real changes in acute physiological responses following resistance exercise in trained individuals. Researchers investigating strategies to manipulate acute physiological responses for recovery and/or adaptation can use these measures, as well as the recommended sampling points, to be confident that their interventions are making a worthwhile impact.

Recovery following a marathon: a comparison of cold water immersion, whole body cryotherapy and a placebo control

PURPOSE

Cryotherapy is an increasingly popular recovery strategy used in an attempt to attenuate the negative impact of strenuous physical activity on subsequent exercise. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the effects of whole body cryotherapy (WBC) and cold water immersion (CWI) on markers of recovery following a marathon.

METHODS

Thirty-one endurance trained males completed a marathon. Participants were randomly assigned to a CWI, WBC or placebo group. Perceptions of muscle soreness, training stress and markers of muscle function were recorded before the marathon and at 24 and 48 h post exercise. Blood samples were taken at baseline, post intervention and 24 and 48 h post intervention to assess inflammation and muscle damage.

RESULTS

WBC had a harmful effect on muscle function compared to CWI post marathon. WBC positively influenced perceptions of training stress compared to CWI. With the exception of C-reactive protein (CRP) at 24 and 48 h, neither cryotherapy intervention positively influenced blood borne markers of inflammation or structural damage compared to placebo.

CONCLUSION

The findings show WBC has a negative impact on muscle function, perceptions of soreness and a number of blood parameters compared to CWI, contradicting the suggestion that WBC may be a superior recovery strategy. Further, cryotherapy is no more effective than a placebo intervention at improving functional recovery or perceptions of training stress following a marathon. These findings lend further evidence to suggest that treatment belief and the placebo effect may be largely responsible for the beneficial effects of cryotherapy on recovery following a marathon.

The effect of milk on recovery from repeat-sprint cycling in female team-sport athletes

The consumption of milk following eccentric exercise attenuates the effects of muscle damage in team-sport athletes. However, participation in team sport involves both concentric-eccentric loading and metabolic stress. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of postexercise milk consumption on recovery from a cycling protocol designed to simulate the metabolic demands of team sport. Ten female team-sport athletes participated in a randomised crossover investigation. Upon completion of the protocol participants consumed 500 mL of milk (MILK) or 500 mL of an energy-matched carbohydrate (CHO) drink. Muscle function (peak torque, rate of force development, countermovement jump, 20-m sprint), muscle soreness and tiredness, serum creatine kinase, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, and measures of oxidative stress (protein carbonyls and reduced glutathione/oxidized glutathione (GSH/GSSG) ratio) were determined at pre-exercise and 24 h, 48 h, and 72 h postexercise. MILK had a possible beneficial effect in attenuating losses in peak torque (180°/s) from baseline to 24 h (3.2% ± 7.8% vs. -6.2% ± 7.5%, MILK vs. CHO) and a possible beneficial effect in minimising soreness (baseline-48 h; baseline-72 h) and tiredness (baseline-24 h; baseline-72 h). There was no change in oxidative stress following the exercise protocol, though a likely benefit of milk was observed for GSH/GSSG ratio at baseline-24 h (0.369 ×/÷ 1.89, 1.103 ×/÷ 3.96, MILK vs. CHO). MILK had an unclear effect on all other variables. Consumption of 500 mL of milk after repeat sprint cycling had little to no benefit in minimising losses in peak torque or minimising increases in soreness and tiredness and had no effect on serum markers of muscle damage and inflammation.

The effect of milk on the attenuation of exercise-induced muscle damage in males and females

PURPOSE

The consumption of 500 ml milk following muscle damaging exercise can attenuate decreases in muscle functional capacity and increases in markers of muscle damage and soreness in males. There has been no similar research in female participants. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of milk consumption on exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) in males and females.

METHODS

Thirty-two team sport players (male n = 16; female n = 16) were randomly, but equally divided into four groups: male milk, male carbohydrate, female milk, and female carbohydrate. Immediately following muscle damaging exercise, participants consumed either 500 ml of milk or 500 ml of an energy-matched carbohydrate solution. Skeletal troponin I (sTnI), creatine kinase (CK), peak torque, counter movement jump height, 20 m sprint performance and passive and active soreness were recorded prior to and 24, 48 and 72 h post-EIMD.

RESULTS

For females, milk had a likely/very likely beneficial effect on attenuating losses in peak torque at 60°/s from baseline to 24, 48 and 72 h, and a likely beneficial effect in minimising decrements in sprint performance and soreness over 72 h. Milk was unlikely to have a negative effect on serum markers of damage from baseline to 48 and 72 h. For males, milk had an unclear effect on muscle function variables. Milk had a most likely/likely beneficial effect on limiting muscle soreness from baseline to 72 h, and a possible beneficial effect on attenuating increases in CK. The effect on sTnI was unlikely to be negative from baseline-72 h. Overall gender comparisons provided many unclear outcomes. However, female participants demonstrated smaller increases in sprint time, passive soreness, active soreness (non-dominant leg) and sTnI values.

CONCLUSION

Consumption of 500 ml of milk post-EIMD can limit decrements in muscle function in females, and limit increases in soreness and serum markers of muscle damage in females and males.

Effect of milk on team sport performance after exercise-induced muscle damage

INTRODUCTION

Exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) leads to increases in intramuscular proteins observed in the blood stream and delayed onset of muscle soreness, but crucial for athletes are the decrements in muscle performance observed. Previous research has demonstrated that carbohydrate-protein supplements limit these decrements; however, they have primarily used isokinetic dynamometry, which has limited applicability to dynamic sport settings. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of a carbohydrate-protein milk supplement consumed after muscle-damaging exercise on performance tests specific to field-based team sports.

METHODS

Two independent groups of seven males consumed either 500 mL of milk or a control immediately after muscle-damaging exercise. Passive and active delayed onset of muscle soreness, creatine kinase, myoglobin, countermovement jump height, reactive strength index, 15-m sprint, and agility time were assessed before and 24, 48, and 72 h after EIMD. The Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Test was also performed before and 48 h after EIMD.

RESULTS

At 48 h, milk had a possible benefit for limiting increases in 10-m sprint time and a likely benefit of attenuating increases in mean 15-m sprint time during the Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Test. At 72 h, milk had a possible benefit for limiting increases in 15-m sprint time and a likely benefit for the attenuation of increases in agility time. All other effects for measured variables were unclear.

CONCLUSION

The consumption of milk limits decrements in one-off sprinting and agility performance and the ability to perform repeated sprints during the physiological simulation of field-based team sports.

Effect of volume of milk consumed on the attenuation of exercise-induced muscle damage

Exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) leads to decrements in muscle performance, increases in intramuscular proteins and delayed-onset of muscle soreness (DOMS). Previous research demonstrated that one litre of milk-based protein-carbohydrate (CHO) consumed immediately following muscle damaging exercise can limit changes in markers of EIMD possibly due to attenuating protein degradation and/or increasing protein synthesis. If the attenuation of EIMD is derived from changes in protein metabolism then it can be hypothesised that consuming a smaller volume of CHO and protein will elicit similar effects. Three independent matched groups of 8 males consumed 500 mL of milk, 1,000 mL of milk or a placebo immediately following muscle damaging exercise. Passive and active DOMS, isokinetic muscle performance, creatine kinase (CK), myoglobin and interleukin-6 were assessed immediately before and 24, 48 and 72 h after EIMD. After 72 h 1,000 mL of milk had a likely benefit for limiting decrements in peak torque compared to the placebo. After 48 h, 1,000 mL of milk had a very likely benefit of limiting increases in CK in comparison to the placebo. There were no differences between consuming 500 or 1,000 mL of milk for changes in peak torque and CK. In conclusion, decrements in isokinetic muscle performance and increases in CK can be limited with the consumption of 500 mL of milk.

Effect of milk-based carbohydrate-protein supplement timing on the attenuation of exercise-induced muscle damage

Exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) leads to decrements in muscle performance and increases in intramuscular enzymes measured in the plasma, and to delayed onset of muscle soreness (DOMS), partly due to the activation of degradative pathways. It has been shown that milk-based carbohydrate-protein (CHO-P) can limit changes in markers of EIMD, possibly by attenuating protein degradation and (or) increasing protein synthesis. However, the timing of supplementation has received limited attention, and this may alter the response. This study examined the effects of acute milk-based CHO-P supplementation timing on the attenuation of EIMD. Four independent matched groups of 8 healthy males consumed milk-based CHO-P before (PRE), immediately after (POST), or 24 h after (TWENTY-FOUR) muscle-damaging exercise. Active DOMS, isokinetic muscle performance, reactive strength index (RSI), and creatine kinase (CK) were assessed immediately before and 24, 48, and 72 h after EIMD. POST and TWENTY-FOUR demonstrated a benefit in limiting changes in active DOMS, peak torque, and RSI over 48 h, compared with PRE. PRE showed a possible benefit in reducing increases in CK over 48 h and limiting changes in other variables over 72 h. Consuming milk-based CHO-P after muscle-damaging exercise is more beneficial in attenuating decreases in muscle performance and increases in active DOMS at 48 h than ingestion prior to exercise.

The effect of exercise on plasma soluble IL-6 receptor concentration: a dichotomous response

The aim of this article is to review current literature on the response of soluble interleukin-6 receptor to exercise and identify a potential role for sIL-6R in skeletal muscle function. We also provide novel data on the impact of eccentric exercise on circulating levels. The aim of the research study was to investigate changes in plasma concentration of soluble interleukin-6 receptor (sIL-6R) and soluble glycoprotein 130 (sgp130) during recovery from exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) up to 72 h and their relationship with delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) and muscle function. 18 participants attended the laboratory on 4 consecutive days. On the first day, participants completed 6 sets of 10 repetitions of unilateral eccentric-concentric knee flexions at a test speed of 1.05 rad.s(-1) using a Cybex Isokentic dynamometer to induce muscle damage of the hamstrings. Prior to the eccentric exercise bout and each subsequent morning, following an overnight fast, participants had a venous blood sample taken which was centrifuged immediately and plasma frozen at -80 degrees C until later analysis. Plasma IL-6 and sgp130 were unchanged at any time point during recovery but sIL-6R was significantly reduced at 48 h and 72 h post-exercise (p < 0.05). Plasma sIL-6R was correlated with DOMS at 48 h post EIMD (r = 0.45, p < 0.05) and peak muscle torque at 24 h and 48 h following EIMD (r = -.42; p < 0.05; r = -.57; p < 0.01 respectively). Our novel finding that sIL-6R concentrations are decreased 2-3 days following a single bout of EIMD may reflect a regulatory mechanism controlling the influx of different leukocyte subpopulations into damaged tissue, although this needs to be confirmed by future studies. Our data suggests an association between sIL-6R, perception of pain and reduced peak muscle performance post-EIMD but further investigation is warranted to explore this relationship and implications for exercise performance.

Acute milk-based protein-CHO supplementation attenuates exercise-induced muscle damage

Exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) leads to the degradation of protein structures within the muscle. This may subsequently lead to decrements in muscle performance and increases in intramuscular enzymes and delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS). Milk, which provides protein and carbohydrate (CHO), may lead to the attenuation of protein degradation and (or) an increase in protein synthesis that would limit the consequential effects of EIMD. This study examined the effects of acute milk and milk-based protein-CHO (CHO-P) supplementation on attenuating EIMD. Four independent groups of 6 healthy males consumed water (CON), CHO sports drink, milk-based CHO-P or milk (M), post EIMD. DOMS, isokinetic muscle performance, creatine kinase (CK), and myoglobin (Mb) were assessed immediately before and 24 and 48 h after EIMD. DOMS was not significantly different (p > 0.05) between groups at any time point. Peak torque (dominant) was significantly higher (p < 0.05) 48 h after CHO-P compared with CHO and CON, and M compared with CHO. Total work of the set (dominant) was significantly higher (p < 0.05) 48 h after CHO-P and M compared with CHO and CON. CK was significantly lower (p < 0.05) 48 h after CHO-P and M compared with CHO. Mb was significantly lower (p < 0.05) 48 h after CHO-P compared with CHO. At 48 h post-EIMD, milk and milk-based protein-CHO supplementation resulted in the attenuation of decreases in isokinetic muscle performance and increases in CK and Mb.

Beta-endorphin-like immunoreactivity in extracts of the fetal bovine pancreas. Column chromatographic characterizations of a high-molecular-weight immunoreactive species

Acid-ethanol extracts of fetal bovine pancrease were examined for the presence of beta-endorphin-like immunoreactivity. Gel-filtration analyses revealed the presence of a major large-molecular-weight beta-endorphin immunoreactive species of approximately 20K delta. This molecular form maintained its size upon resubmission to gel filtration in the presence of 6 M guanidine hydrochloride, separated from the bulk of the glucagon immunoreactivity upon ion-exchange chromatography, showed proportional dilution in the beta-endorphin radioimmunoassay, and interacted in a biospecific manner with Concanavalin-A-Sepharose.

Glycoprotein-like large glucagon immunoreactive species in extracts of the fetal bovine pancreas

Large glucagon immunoreactive substances, extracted from the fetal bovine pancreas and separated by gel filtration in the presence of 6 M guanidinium-hydrochloride, were submitted to lectin-sepharose affinity column chromatograph. Gel-filtered peak I (approximately 45 K delta) and peak II (approximately 10 K delta) interacted biospecifically with concanavalin-A- and wheat-germ-lectin-sepharoses, suggesting glycoproteins as possible constituents of large glucagon immunoreactive substances in extracts of the fetal bovine pancreas. The glucagon-like immunochemical identity of the lectin-sepharose-bound substances was further substantiated by binding to antiglucagon antibodies-sepharose and by characteristic proportional dilutions in the glucagon radioimmunoassay.

Glucagon from the bovine fetal pancreas: chromatographic and electrophoretic characterizations of high molecular weight immunoreactive species

Fetal bovine pancreas was extracted for glucagon using (A) ethanol-Hcl after trichloroacetic acid (TCA) treatment of the pancreas, (B) ethanol-HCl and (C) urea-acetic acid. Fractionation of the acetic acid soluble proteins vi Sephadex G-50 columns yielded glucagon immunoreactivity in the void volume, high molecular weight glucagon immunoreactivities (HMW-IRGs), "proglucagon" (approximately equal to 9 K delta), and true glucagon (3.5 K delta) regions. HMW-IRGs were obtainable using all three methods of extraction. The material obtained from the ethanol-HCl-TCA method appeared stable on Sephadex G-100 (1 M acetic acid) rechromatography. Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis analysis showed immunoreactive species corresponding to approximately 40 K delta and approximately 12 K delta. HMW-IRGs did not bind to concanavalin A (Con A)-agarose. SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of the Con A-agarose filtered IRG again showed a major immunoreactive peak of approximately 40 K delta. Dose-response RIA studies indicated that the HMW-IRGs from both the gel filtration and SDS-polyacrylamide gel experiments were immunochemically indistinguishable from glucagon. HMW-IRGs bind to antiglucagon antibody agarose, further indicating their reactivity towards glucagon antibodies. When HMW-IRGs are incubated with guanidinium hydrochloride and gel filtered in the same system, a significant fraction of HMW-IRG (representing up to 25% of the total IRG analysed) was found to resist disruption. Our data support the contention that a significant portion of the HMW-IRGs (molecular weight greater than 20 K delta) extracted from fetal bovine pancreas are composed of glucagon covalently linked to larger protein unit(s).