Correction: Acceptability of unsupervised peer-based distribution of HIV oral self-testing for the hard-to-reach in rural KwaZulu Natal, South Africa: Results from a demonstration study

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0264442.].

Facteurs associés à la létalité chez les patients hospitalisés pour le VIH avancé

CONTEXT

A unit supported by Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) cares for patients with advanced HIV at Donka National Hospital, Conakry, Guinea.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the factors associated with the occurrence of death in patients hospitalised in the unit between 2017 and 2021.

DESIGN

This was a retrospective analysis of routine data from patients hospitalised with advanced HIV.

RESULTS

A total of 3,718 patients were included, with a median age of 40 years (IQR 33-51), of whom 2,241 (60.3%) were women. The mean mortality rate was 33.6% (n = 1,240), down from 40% in 2017 to 29% in 2021, but this was not statistically significant. The period most at risk of death was the first 25 days of hospitalisation. Among these patients, TB (43.8%) and toxoplasmosis (11.4%) were the most frequent diagnoses. After multivariate analysis using Cox regression, the factors associated with death were age 25-49 years (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR] 1.60; P = 0.002) or ≥50 years (aHR 1.80; P < 0.001), the presence of respiratory (aHR 1.23; P = 0.001) or abdominal symptoms (aHR 1.26; P < 0.001) and readmission (aHR 0.54; P < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Patients aged 25-49 years or older, or those presenting with respiratory or abdominal signs require increased surveillance, as they are at the greatest risk of dying from the disease, especially during the first 25 days of hospitalisation.

Poor outcomes among critically ill HIV-positive patients at hospital discharge and post-discharge in Guinea, Conakry: A retrospective cohort study

INTRODUCTION

Optimal management of critically ill HIV-positive patients during hospitalization and after discharge is not fully understood. This study describes patient characteristics and outcomes of critically ill HIV-positive patients hospitalized in Conakry, Guinea between August 2017 and April 2018 at discharge and 6 months post-discharge.

METHODS

We carried out a retrospective observational cohort study using routine clinical data. Analytic statistics were used to describe characteristics and outcomes.

RESULTS

401 patients were hospitalized during the study period, 230 (57%) were female, median age was 36 (IQR: 28-45). At admission, 229 patients (57%) were on ART, median CD4 was 64 cells/mm3, 166 (41%) had a VL >1000 copies/ml, and 97 (24%) had interrupted treatment. 143 (36%) patients died during hospitalisation. Tuberculosis was the major cause of death for 102 (71%) patients. Of 194 patients that were followed after hospitalization a further 57 (29%) were lost-to-follow-up (LTFU) and 35 (18%) died, 31 (89%) of which had a TB diagnosis. Of all patients who survived a first hospitalisation, 194 (46%) were re-hospitalised at least once more. Amongst those LTFU, 34 (59%) occurred immediately after hospital discharge.

CONCLUSION

Outcomes for critically ill HIV-positive patients in our cohort were poor. We estimate that 1-in-3 patients remained alive and in care 6 months after their hospital admission. This study shows the burden of disease on a contemporary cohort of patients with advanced HIV in a low prevalence, resource limited setting and identifies multiple challenges in their care both during hospitalisation as well as during and after re-transitioning to ambulatory care.

Acceptability of unsupervised peer-based distribution of HIV oral self-testing for the hard-to-reach in rural KwaZulu Natal, South Africa: Results from a demonstration study

BACKGROUND

Innovative models to distribute oral HIV self-tests (HIVST) provide an opportunity to increase access to HIV testing, especially for hard-to-reach populations. This study aimed to describe the acceptability of unsupervised peer-distribution of HIVST as a method to scale-up HIV testing.

METHODS

In this study, lay counsellors or community health workers provided HIVST kits to primary recipients (PRs) for distribution to their sexual partners, anyone in their social network (termed secondary recipients) or for self-testing, from September 2018 to March 2020. The study was conducted in Eshowe and Mbongolwane areas in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. A structured questionnaire was administered during the recruitment and passive follow-up, when people came for confirmatory HIV testing. Electronic records were retrospectively examined to determine initiation of antiretroviral treatment (ART) for all HIVST users and non-users.

RESULTS

Among 36,708 people approached to be primary recipients, 9,891 (26.9%) accepted; 31,341 HIVST kits were distributed with a median of three (IQR: 2-4) per peer. PRs were predominately recruited at primary health clinics (PHCs). However, acceptability of HIVST was thrice as high at community-based testing sites compared to PHCs (64.5% vs. 21.0%; p<0.001). During the study period, 34,715 adults were tested for HIV at both PHCs and community-based testing sites; of these, 1,089 individuals reported HIVST use. Among HIVST users, 893 (82.0%) returned to the clinic for confirmatory testing after testing negative on HIVST; 196 (17.9%) were confirmed HIV positive following a positive HIVST. After excluding 36/196 (18.4%) participants for whom clinical records could not be found in electronic register and 25/160 (15.6%) who were already on ART before receiving HIVST, 129/135 (95.5%) initiated ART, whereas 2,362/2685 (88%) of HIV positive HIVST non-users-initiated ART.

CONCLUSION

Unsupervised peer-distribution of HIVST was feasible and acceptable, with more than 25% accepting to be peer-distributors. Acceptability of HIVST was thrice as high in community sites compared to clinics.

Successes and gaps in the HIV cascade of care of a high HIV prevalence setting in Zimbabwe: a population-based survey

INTRODUCTION

Gutu, a rural district in Zimbabwe, has been implementing comprehensive HIV care with the support of Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) since 2011, decentralizing testing and treatment services to all rural healthcare facilities. We evaluated HIV prevalence, incidence and the cascade of care, in Gutu District five years after MSF began its activities.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was implemented between September and December 2016. Using multistage cluster sampling, individuals aged ≥15 years living in the selected households were eligible. Individuals who agreed to participate were interviewed and tested for HIV at home. All participants who tested HIV-positive had their HIV-RNA viral load (VL) measured, regardless of their antiretroviral therapy (ART) status, and those not on ART with HIV-RNA VL ≥ 1000 copies/mL had Limiting-Antigen-Avidity EIA Assay for cross-sectional estimation of population-level HIV incidence.

RESULTS

Among 5439 eligible adults ≥15 years old, 89.0% of adults were included in the study and accepted an HIV test. The overall prevalence was 13.6% (95%: Confidence Interval (CI): 12.6 to 14.5). Overall HIV-positive status awareness was 87.4% (95% CI: 84.7 to 89.8), linkage to care 85.5% (95% CI: 82.5 to 88.0) and participants in care 83.8% (95% CI: 80.7 to 86.4). ART coverage among HIV-positive participants was 83.0% (95% CI: 80.0 to 85.7). Overall, 71.6% (95% CI 68.0 to 75.0) of HIV-infected participants had a HIV-RNA VL < 1000 copies/mL. Women achieved higher outcomes than men in the five stages of the cascade of care. Viral Load Suppression (VLS) among participants on ART was 83.2% (95% CI: 79.7 to 86.2) and was not statistically different between women and men (p = 0.98). The overall HIV incidence was estimated at 0.35% (95% CI 0.00 to 0.70) equivalent to 35 new cases/10,000 person-years.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study provides population-level evidence that achievement of HIV cascade of care coverage overall and among women is feasible in a context with broad access to services and implementation of a decentralized model of care. However, the VLS was relatively low even among participants on ART. Quality care remains the most critical gap in the cascade of care to further reduce mortality and HIV transmission.

Tuberculosis-HIV Co-Infection: Progress and Challenges After Two Decades of Global Antiretroviral Treatment Roll-Out

Despite wide antiretroviral scale-up during the past two decades resulting in declining new infections and mortality globally, HIV-associated tuberculosis remains as a major public health concern. Tuberculosis is the leading HIV-associated opportunistic infection and the main cause of death globally and, particularly, in resource-limited settings. Several challenges exist regarding diagnosis, global implementation of latent tuberculosis treatment, management of active tuberculosis, delivery of optimal patient-centered TB and HIV prevention and care in high burden countries. In this article we review the advances on pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment after nearly two decades of global roll-out of antiretroviral therapy and discuss the current challenges for the global control of tuberculosis-HIV co-infection.

Standardised shorter regimens versus individualised longer regimens for rifampin- or multidrug-resistant tuberculosis

We sought to compare the effectiveness of two World Health Organization (WHO)-recommended regimens for the treatment of rifampin- or multidrug-resistant (RR/MDR) tuberculosis (TB): a standardised regimen of 9-12 months (the "shorter regimen") and individualised regimens of ≥20 months ("longer regimens").We collected individual patient data from observational studies identified through systematic reviews and a public call for data. We included patients meeting WHO eligibility criteria for the shorter regimen: not previously treated with second-line drugs, and with fluoroquinolone- and second-line injectable agent-susceptible RR/MDR-TB. We used propensity score matched, mixed effects meta-regression to calculate adjusted odds ratios and adjusted risk differences (aRDs) for failure or relapse, death within 12 months of treatment initiation and loss to follow-up.We included 2625 out of 3378 (77.7%) individuals from nine studies of shorter regimens and 2717 out of 13 104 (20.7%) individuals from 53 studies of longer regimens. Treatment success was higher with the shorter regimen than with longer regimens (pooled proportions 80.0% versus 75.3%), due to less loss to follow-up with the former (aRD -0.15, 95% CI -0.17- -0.12). The risk difference for failure or relapse was slightly higher with the shorter regimen overall (aRD 0.02, 95% CI 0-0.05) and greater in magnitude with baseline resistance to pyrazinamide (aRD 0.12, 95% CI 0.07-0.16), prothionamide/ethionamide (aRD 0.07, 95% CI -0.01-0.16) or ethambutol (aRD 0.09, 95% CI 0.04-0.13).In patients meeting WHO criteria for its use, the standardised shorter regimen was associated with substantially less loss to follow-up during treatment compared with individualised longer regimens and with more failure or relapse in the presence of resistance to component medications. Our findings support the need to improve access to reliable drug susceptibility testing.

Tuberculosis-HIV Co-Infection: Progress and Challenges After Two Decades of Global Antiretroviral Treatment Roll-Out

Despite wide antiretroviral scale-up during the past two decades resulting in declining new infections and mortality globally, HIV-associated tuberculosis remains as a major public health concern. Tuberculosis is the leading HIV-associated opportunistic infection and the main cause of death globally and, particularly, in resource-limited settings. Several challenges exist regarding diagnosis, global implementation of latent tuberculosis treatment, management of active tuberculosis, delivery of optimal patient-centered TB and HIV prevention and care in high burden countries. In this article we review the advances on pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment after nearly two decades of global roll-out of antiretroviral therapy and discuss the current challenges for the global control of tuberculosis-HIV co-infection.

New opportunities in tuberculosis prevention: implications for people living with HIV

INTRODUCTION

Tuberculosis (TB) is a leading cause of mortality among people living with HIV (PLHIV). An invigorated global END TB Strategy seeks to increase efforts in scaling up TB preventive therapy (TPT) as a central intervention for HIV programmes in an effort to contribute to a 90% reduction in TB incidence and 95% reduction in mortality by 2035. TPT in PLHIV should be part of a comprehensive approach to reduce TB transmission, illness and death that also includes TB active case-finding and prompt, effective and timely initiation of anti-TB therapy among PLHIV. However, the use and implementation of preventive strategies has remained deplorably inadequate and today TB prevention among PLHIV has become an urgent priority globally.

DISCUSSION

We present a summary of the current and novel TPT regimens, including current evidence of use with antiretroviral regimens (ART). We review challenges and opportunities to scale-up TB prevention within HIV programmes, including the use of differentiated care approaches and demand creation for effective TB/HIV services delivery. TB preventive vaccines and diagnostics, including optimal algorithms, while important topics, are outside of the focus of this commentary.

CONCLUSIONS

A number of new tools and strategies to make TPT a standard of care in HIV programmes have become available. The new TPT regimens are safe and effective and can be used with current ART, with attention being paid to potential drug-drug interactions between rifamycins and some classes of antiretrovirals. More research and development is needed to optimize TPT for small children, pregnant women and drug-resistant TB (DR-TB). Effective programmatic scale-up can be supported through context-adapted demand creation strategies and the inclusion of TPT in client-centred services, such as differentiated service delivery (DSD) models. Robust collaboration between the HIV and TB programmes represents a unique opportunity to ensure that TB, a preventable and curable condition, is no longer the number one cause of death in PLHIV.

Lessons learned: Retrospective assessment of outcomes and management of patients with advanced HIV disease in a semi-urban polyclinic in Epworth, Zimbabwe

INTRODUCTION

HIV continues to be one of the leading causes of infectious death worldwide and presentation with advanced HIV disease is associated with increased morbidity and mortality. Recommendations for the management of advanced HIV disease include prompt screening and treatment of opportunistic infections, rapid initiation of ART and intensified adherence support. We present treatment outcomes of a cohort of patients presenting with advanced HIV disease in a semi-urban Zimbabwean polyclinic.

METHODS

Retrospective cohort analysis of adult patients enrolled for care at Epworth polyclinic, Zimbabwe between 2007 and end June 2016. Treatment outcomes at 6 and 12 months were recorded. Multivariate logistical regression analysis was undertaken to identify risk factors for presentation with advanced HIV Disease (CD4 count less than 200 cells/mm3 or WHO stage 3 or 4) and risks for attrition at 12 months.

RESULTS

16,007 anti-retroviral therapy naive adult patients were included in the final analysis, 47.4% of whom presented with advanced HIV disease. Patients presenting with advanced HIV disease had a higher mortality rate at 12 months following enrollment compared to early stage patients (5.11% vs 0.45%). Introduction of a package of differentiated care for patients with a CD4 count of less than 100 cells/mm3 resulted in diagnosis of cryptococcal antigenaemia in 7% of patients and a significant increase in the diagnosis of TB, although there was no significant difference in attrition at 6 or 12 months for these patients compared to those enrolled prior to the introduction of the differentiated care.

CONCLUSIONS

The burden of advanced HIV disease remained high over the study period in this semi-urban polyclinic in Zimbabwe. Introduction of a package of differentiated care for those with advanced HIV disease increased the diagnosis of opportunistic infections and represents a model of care which can be replicated in other polyclinics in the resource constrained Zimbabwean context.

Effectiveness and safety of standardised shorter regimens for multidrug-resistant tuberculosis: individual patient data and aggregate data meta-analyses

We assessed the effectiveness and safety of standardised, shorter multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) regimens by pooling data from observational studies.

Published studies were identified from medical databases; unpublished studies were identified from expert consultation. We conducted aggregate data meta-analyses to estimate pooled proportions of treatment outcomes and individual patient data (IPD) meta-regression to identify risk factors for unsuccessful treatment in patients treated with 9- to 12-month MDR-TB regimens composed of a second-line injectable, gatifloxacin/moxifloxacin, prothionamide, clofazimine, isoniazid, pyrazinamide and ethambutol.

We included five studies in which 796 out of 1279 (62.2%) individuals with confirmed MDR-TB (98.4%) or rifampin-resistant TB (1.6%), and not previously exposed to second-line drugs, were eligible for shorter regimens. 669 out of 796 participants were successfully treated (83.0%, 95% CI 71.9–90.3%). In IPD meta-regression (three studies, n=497), failure/relapse was associated with fluoroquinolone resistance (crude OR 46, 95% CI 8–273), pyrazinamide resistance (OR 8, 95% CI 2–38) and no culture conversion by month 2 of treatment (OR 7, 95% CI 3–202). Two participants acquired extensive drug resistance. Four studies reported grade 3 or 4 adverse events in 55 out of 304 (18.1%) participants.

Shorter regimens were effective in treating MDR-TB; however, there is uncertainty surrounding the generalisability of the high rate of treatment success to less selected populations, to programmatic settings and in the absence of drug susceptibility tests to key component drugs.

Risk factors for unstructured treatment interruptions and association with survival in low to middle income countries

Background

Antiretroviral therapy (ART) treatment interruptions lead to poor clinical outcomes with unplanned or unstructured TIs (uTIs) likely to be underreported. This study describes; uTIs, their risk factors and association with survival.

Methods

Analysis of ART programmatic data from 11 countries across Asia and Africa between 2003 and 2013 where an uTI was defined as a ≥90-day patient initiated break from ART calculated from the last day the previous ART prescription would have run out until the date of the next ART prescription. Factors predicting uTI were assessed with a conditional risk-set multiple failure time-to-event model to account for repeated events per subject. Association between uTI and mortality was assessed using Cox proportional hazards, with a competing risks extension to test for the influence of lost to follow-up (LTFU).

Results

40,632 patients were included from 11 countries across 33 sites (17 Africa, 16 Asia). Median duration of follow-up was 1.61 years (IQR 0.54–3.31 years), 3386 (8.3 %) patients died, and 3453 (8.5 %) were LTFU. There were 14,817 uTIs, with 10,162 (25 %) patients having more than one uTI. In the adjusted model males were at lower risk of uTI (aHR 0.94, p < 0.01, and age 20–59 was protective compared to <20 years (20–39 years aHR 0.87, p < 0.01; 40–59 years aHR 0.86, p < 0.01). Preserved immune function, as measured by higher CD4 cell count, was associated with a reduced rate of uTI compared to CD4 <200 cells/μL (CD4 200–350 cells/μL aHR 0.89, p < 0.01; CD4 >350 cells/μL aHR 0.87, p < 0.01), whereas advanced clinical disease was associated with increased uTI rate (WHO stage 3 aHR 1.10, p < 0.01; WHO stage 4 aHR 1.21, p < 0.01). There was no relationship between uTI and mortality after adjusting for disease status and considering LTFU as a competing risk.

Conclusions

uTIs were frequent in people in ART programs in low-middle income countries and associated with younger age, female gender and advanced HIV. uTI did not predict survival when loss to follow-up was considered a competing risk. Further evaluation of uTI predictors and interventions to reduce their occurrence is warranted.

Towards the WHO target of zero childhood tuberculosis deaths: an analysis of mortality in 13 locations in Africa and Asia

SETTING

Achieving the World Health Organization (WHO) target of zero paediatric tuberculosis (TB) deaths will require an understanding of the underlying risk factors for mortality.

OBJECTIVE

To identify risk factors for mortality and assess the impact of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) testing during anti-tuberculosis treatment in children in 13 TB-HIV programmes run by Médecins Sans Frontières.

DESIGN

In a retrospective cohort study, we recorded mortality and analysed risk factors using descriptive statistics and logistic regression. Diagnosis was based on WHO algorithm and smear microscopy.

RESULTS

A total of 2451 children (mean age 5.2 years, SD 3.9) were treated for TB. Half (51.0%) lived in Asia, the remainder in sub-Saharan Africa; 56.0% had pulmonary TB; 6.4% were diagnosed using smear microscopy; 211 (8.6%) died. Of 1513 children tested for HIV, 935 (61.8%) were positive; 120 (12.8%) died compared with 30/578 (5.2%) HIV-negative children. Risk factors included being HIV-positive (OR 2.6, 95%CI 1.6-4.2), age <5 years (1.7, 95%CI 1.2-2.5) and having tuberculous meningitis (2.6, 95%CI 1.0-6.8). Risk was higher in African children of unknown HIV status than in those who were confirmed HIV-negative (1.9, 95%CI 1.1-3.3).

CONCLUSIONS

Strategies to eliminate childhood TB deaths should include addressing the high-risk groups identified in this study, enhanced TB prevention, universal HIV testing and the development of a rapid diagnostic test.

"Home is where the patient is": a qualitative analysis of a patient-centred model of care for multi-drug resistant tuberculosis

BACKGROUND

Ambulatory, community-based care for multi-drug resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) has been found to be effective in multiple settings with high cure rates. However, little is known about patient preferences around models of MDR-TB care. Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) has delivered home-based MDR-TB treatment in the rural Kitgum and Lamwo districts of northern Uganda since 2009 in collaboration with the Ministry of Health and the National TB and Leprosy Programme. We conducted a qualitative study examining the experience of patients and key stakeholders of home-based MDR-TB treatment.

METHODS

We used semi-structured interviews and focus-group discussions to examine patients' perceptions, views and experiences of home-based treatment and care for MDR-TB versus their perceptions of care in hospital. We identified how these perceptions interacted with those of their families and other stakeholders involved with TB. Participants were selected purposively following a stakeholder analysis. Sample size was determined by data saturation being reached within each identified homogenous category of respondents: health-care receiving, health-care providing and key informant. Iterative data collection and analysis enabled adaptation of topic guides and testing of emerging themes. The grounded theory method of analysis was applied, with data, codes and categories being continually compared and refined.

RESULTS

Several key themes emerged: the perceived preference and acceptability of home-based treatment and care as a model of MDR-TB treatment by patients, family, community members and health-care workers; the fear of transmission of other infections within hospital settings; and the identification of MDR-TB developing through poor adherence to and inadequate treatment regimens for DS-TB.

CONCLUSIONS

Home-based treatment and care was acceptable to patients, families, communities and health-care workers and was seen as preferable to hospital-based care by most respondents. Home-based care was perceived as safe, conducive to recovery, facilitating psychosocial support and allowing more free time and earning potential for patients and caretakers. These findings could contribute to development of an adaptation of treatment approach strategy at national level.

Impact of HIV-associated conditions on mortality in people commencing anti-retroviral therapy in resource limited settings

Objectives

To identify associations between specific WHO stage 3 and 4 conditions diagnosed after ART initiation and all cause mortality for patients in resource-limited settings (RLS).

Design, Setting

Analysis of routine program data collected prospectively from 25 programs in eight countries between 2002 and 2010.

Subjects, Participants

36,664 study participants with median ART follow-up of 1.26 years (IQR 0.55–2.27).

Outcome Measures

Using a proportional hazards model we identified factors associated with mortality, including the occurrence of specific WHO clinical stage 3 and 4 conditions during the 6-months following ART initiation.

Results

There were 2922 deaths during follow-up (8.0%). The crude mortality rate was 5.41 deaths per 100 person-years (95% CI: 5.21–5.61). The diagnosis of any WHO stage 3 or 4 condition during the first 6 months of ART was associated with increased mortality (HR: 2.21; 95% CI: 1.97–2.47). After adjustment for age, sex, region and pre-ART CD4 count, a diagnosis of extrapulmonary cryptococcosis (aHR: 3.54; 95% CI: 2.74–4.56), HIV wasting syndrome (aHR: 2.92; 95%CI: 2.21 -3.85), non-tuberculous mycobacterial infection (aHR: 2.43; 95% CI: 1.80–3.28) and Pneumocystis pneumonia (aHR: 2.17; 95% CI 1.80–3.28) were associated with the greatest increased mortality. Cerebral toxoplasmosis, pulmonary and extra-pulmonary tuberculosis, Kaposi’s sarcoma and oral and oesophageal candidiasis were associated with increased mortality, though at lower rates.

Conclusions

A diagnosis of certain WHO stage 3 and 4 conditions is associated with an increased risk of mortality in those initiating ART in RLS. This information will assist initiatives to reduce excess mortality, including prioritization of resources for diagnostics, therapeutic interventions and research.

Incidence of WHO stage 3 and 4 conditions following initiation of anti-retroviral therapy in resource limited settings

Objectives

To determine the incidence of WHO clinical stage 3 and 4 conditions during early anti-retroviral therapy (ART) in resource limited settings (RLS).

Design/Setting

A descriptive analysis of routine program data collected prospectively from 25 Médecins Sans Frontières supported HIV treatment programs in eight countries between 2002 and 2010.

Subjects/Participants

35,349 study participants with median follow-up on ART of 1.33 years (IQR 0.51–2.41).

Outcome Measures

Incidence in 100 person-years of WHO stage 3 or 4 conditions during 5 periods after ART initiation. Diagnoses of conditions were made according to WHO criteria and relied upon clinical assessments supported by basic laboratory investigations.

Results

The incidence of any WHO clinical stage 3 or 4 condition over 3 years was 40.02 per 100 person-years (31.77 for stage 3 and 8.25 for stage 4). The incidence of stage 3 and 4 conditions fell by over 97% between months 0–3 and months 25–36 (77.81 to 2.40 for stage 3 and 28.70 to 0.64 for stage 4). During months 0–3 pulmonary tuberculosis was the most common condition diagnosed in adults (incidence 22.24 per 100 person-years) and children aged 5–14 years (25.76) and oral candidiasis was the most common in children <5 years (25.79). Overall incidences were higher in Africa compared with Asia (43.98 versus 12.97 for stage 3 and 8.98 versus 7.05 for stage 4 conditions, p<0.001). Pulmonary tuberculosis, weight loss, oral and oesophageal candidiasis, chronic diarrhoea, HIV wasting syndrome and severe bacterial infections were more common in Africa. Extra-pulmonary tuberculosis, non-tuberculous mycobacterial infection, cryptococcosis, penicilliosis and toxoplasmosis were more common in Asia.

Conclusions

The incidence of WHO stage 3 and 4 conditions during the early period after ART initiation in RLS is high, but greatly reduces over time. This is likely due to both the benefits of ART and deaths of the sickest patients occurring shortly after ART initiation. Access to appropriate disease prevention tools prior to ART, and early initiation of ART, are important for their prevention.