The identification of novel loci required for appropriate nodule development in Medicago truncatula

BACKGROUND

The formation of functional symbiotic nodules is the result of a coordinated developmental program between legumes and rhizobial bacteria. Genetic analyses in legumes have been used to dissect the signaling processes required for establishing the legume-rhizobial endosymbiotic association. Compared to the early events of the symbiotic interaction, less attention has been paid to plant loci required for rhizobial colonization and the functioning of the nodule. Here we describe the identification and characterization of a number of new genetic loci in Medicago truncatula that are required for the development of effective nitrogen fixing nodules.

RESULTS

Approximately 38,000 EMS and fast neutron mutagenized Medicago truncatula seedlings were screened for defects in symbiotic nitrogen fixation. Mutant plants impaired in nodule development and efficient nitrogen fixation were selected for further genetic and phenotypic analysis. Nine mutants completely lacking in nodule formation (Nod-) represented six complementation groups of which two novel loci have been identified. Eight mutants with ineffective nodules (Fix-) represented seven complementation groups, out of which five were new monogenic loci. The Fix- M. truncatula mutants showed symptoms of nitrogen deficiency and developed small white nodules. Microscopic analysis of Fix- nodules revealed that the mutants have defects in the release of rhizobia from infection threads, differentiation of rhizobia and maintenance of persistence of bacteria in nodule cells. Additionally, we monitored the transcriptional activity of symbiosis specific genes to define what transcriptional stage of the symbiotic process is blocked in each of the Fix- mutants. Based on the phenotypic and gene expression analysis a functional hierarchy of the FIX genes is proposed.

CONCLUSIONS

The new symbiotic loci of M. truncatula isolated in this study provide the foundation for further characterization of the mechanisms underpinning nodulation, in particular the later stages associated with bacterial release and nodule function.

RAM1 and RAM2 function and expression during arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis and Aphanomyces euteiches colonization

The establishment of the symbiotic interaction between plants and arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi requires a very tight molecular dialogue. Most of the known plant genes necessary for this process are also required for nodulation in legume plants and only very recently genes specifically required for AM symbiosis have been described. Among them we identified RAM (Reduced Arbuscular Mycorrhization)1 and RAM2, a GRAS transcription factor and a GPAT respectively, which are critical for the induction of hyphopodia formation in AM fungi. RAM2 function is also required for appressoria formation by the pathogen Phytophtora palmivora. Here we investigated the activity of RAM1 and RAM2 promoters during mycorrhization and the role of RAM1 and RAM2 during infection by the root pathogen Aphanomyces euteiches. pRAM1 is activated without cell type specificity before hyphopodia formation, while pRAM2 is specifically active in arbusculated cells providing evidence for a potential function of cutin momomers in the regulation of arbuscule formation. Furthermore, consistent with what we observed with Phytophtora, RAM2 but not RAM 1 is required during Aphanomyces euteiches infection.

Highly syntenic regions in the genomes of soybean, Medicago truncatula, and Arabidopsis thaliana

BACKGROUND

Recent genome sequencing enables mega-base scale comparisons between related genomes. Comparisons between animals, plants, fungi, and bacteria demonstrate extensive synteny tempered by rearrangements. Within the legume plant family, glimpses of synteny have also been observed. Characterizing syntenic relationships in legumes is important in transferring knowledge from model legumes to crops that are important sources of protein, fixed nitrogen, and health-promoting compounds.

RESULTS

We have uncovered two large soybean regions exhibiting synteny with M. truncatula and with a network of segmentally duplicated regions in Arabidopsis. In all, syntenic regions comprise over 500 predicted genes spanning 3 Mb. Up to 75% of soybean genes are colinear with M. truncatula, including one region in which 33 of 35 soybean predicted genes with database support are colinear to M. truncatula. In some regions, 60% of soybean genes share colinearity with a network of A. thaliana duplications. One region is especially interesting because this 500 kbp segment of soybean is syntenic to two paralogous regions in M. truncatula on different chromosomes. Phylogenetic analysis of individual genes within these regions demonstrates that one is orthologous to the soybean region, with which it also shows substantially denser synteny and significantly lower levels of synonymous nucleotide substitutions. The other M. truncatula region is inferred to be paralogous, presumably resulting from a duplication event preceding speciation.

CONCLUSION

The presence of well-defined M. truncatula segments showing orthologous and paralogous relationships with soybean allows us to explore the evolution of contiguous genomic regions in the context of ancient genome duplication and speciation events.

Medicago truncatula, going where no plant has gone before

4th Workshop on Medicago truncatula, 7-10 July 2001, Madison WI, USA.

Evidence for structurally specific negative feedback in the Nod factor signal transduction pathway

Nod factor is a critical signalling molecule in the establishment of the legume/rhizobial symbiosis. The Nod factor of Sinorhizobium meliloti carries O-sulphate, O-acetate and C16:2 N-acyl attachments that define its activity and host specificity. Here we assess the relative importance of these modifications for the induction of calcium spiking in Medicago truncatula. We find that Nod factor structures lacking the O-sulphate, structures lacking the O-acetate and N-acyl groups, and structures lacking the O-acetate combined with a C18:1 N-acyl group all show calcium spiking when applied at high concentrations. These calcium responses are blocked in dmi1 and dmi2 mutants, suggesting that they function through the Nod factor signal transduction pathway. The dmi3 mutant, which is proposed to function in the Nod factor signal transduction pathway downstream of calcium spiking, shows increased sensitivity to Nod factor. This increased sensitivity is only active with wild-type Nod factor and was not present when the plants were treated with mutant Nod factor structures. We propose that the Nod factor signal transduction pathway is under negative feedback regulation that is activated at or downstream of DMI3 and requires structural components of the Nod factor molecule for activity.

Ethylene inhibits the Nod factor signal transduction pathway of Medicago truncatula

Legumes form a mutualistic symbiosis with bacteria collectively referred to as rhizobia. The bacteria induce the formation of nodules on the roots of the appropriate host plant, and this process requires the bacterial signaling molecule Nod factor. Although the interaction is beneficial to the plant, the number of nodules is tightly regulated. The gaseous plant hormone ethylene has been shown to be involved in the regulation of nodule number. The mechanism of the ethylene inhibition on nodulation is unclear, and the position at which ethylene acts in this complex developmental process is unknown. Here, we used direct and indirect ethylene application and inhibition of ethylene biosynthesis, together with comparison of wild-type plants and an ethylene-insensitive supernodulating mutant, to assess the effect of ethylene at multiple stages of this interaction in the model legume Medicago truncatula. We show that ethylene inhibited all of the early plant responses tested, including the initiation of calcium spiking. This finding suggests that ethylene acts upstream or at the point of calcium spiking in the Nod factor signal transduction pathway, either directly or through feedback from ethylene effects on downstream events. Furthermore, ethylene appears to regulate the frequency of calcium spiking, suggesting that it can modulate both the degree and the nature of Nod factor pathway activation.

Ethylene inhibits the Nod factor signal transduction pathway of Medicago truncatula

Legumes form a mutualistic symbiosis with bacteria collectively referred to as rhizobia. The bacteria induce the formation of nodules on the roots of the appropriate host plant, and this process requires the bacterial signaling molecule Nod factor. Although the interaction is beneficial to the plant, the number of nodules is tightly regulated. The gaseous plant hormone ethylene has been shown to be involved in the regulation of nodule number. The mechanism of the ethylene inhibition on nodulation is unclear, and the position at which ethylene acts in this complex developmental process is unknown. Here, we used direct and indirect ethylene application and inhibition of ethylene biosynthesis, together with comparison of wild-type plants and an ethylene-insensitive supernodulating mutant, to assess the effect of ethylene at multiple stages of this interaction in the model legume Medicago truncatula. We show that ethylene inhibited all of the early plant responses tested, including the initiation of calcium spiking. This finding suggests that ethylene acts upstream or at the point of calcium spiking in the Nod factor signal transduction pathway, either directly or through feedback from ethylene effects on downstream events. Furthermore, ethylene appears to regulate the frequency of calcium spiking, suggesting that it can modulate both the degree and the nature of Nod factor pathway activation.

Plants expressing the Pto disease resistance gene confer resistance to recombinant PVX containing the avirulence gene AvrPto

Elicitation of hypersensitive cell death and induction of plant disease resistance by Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato (Pst) is dependent on activity of the Pst Hrp secretion system and the gene-for-gene interaction between the tomato resistance gene Pto and the bacterial avirulence gene avrPto. AvrPto was expressed transiently in resistant or susceptible plant lines via a potato virus X (PVX) vector. We found that while PVX is normally virulent on tomato, a PVX derivative expressing avrPto was only capable of infecting plants lacking a functional Pto resistance pathway. Mutations in either the Pto or Prf genes allowed systemic spread of the recombinant virus. These results indicate that recognition of AvrPto by Pto in resistant plant lines triggers a plant defense response that can confer resistance to a viral as well as a bacterial pathogen.

Genetically engineered broad-spectrum disease resistance in tomato

Resistance in tomato to the bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas syringae pathovar tomato requires Pto and Prf. Mutations that eliminate Prf show a loss of both Pto resistance and sensitivity to the organophosphate insecticide fenthion, suggesting that Prf controls both phenotypes. Herein, we report that the overexpression of Prf leads to enhanced resistance to a number of normally virulent bacterial and viral pathogens and leads to increased sensitivity to fenthion. These plants express levels of salicylic acid comparable to plants induced for systemic acquired resistance (SAR) and constitutively express pathogenesis related genes. These results suggest that the overexpression of Prf activates the Pto and Fen pathways in a pathogen-independent manner and leads to the activation of SAR. Transgene-induced SAR has implications for the generation of broad spectrum disease resistance in agricultural crop plants.

Tomato Prf is a member of the leucine-rich repeat class of plant disease resistance genes and lies embedded within the Pto kinase gene cluster

In tomato, resistance to Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato (Pst) strains expressing the avirulence gene avrPto requires the presence of at least two host genes, designated Pto and Prf. Here we report that Prf encodes a protein with leucine-zipper, nucleotide-binding, and leucine-rich repeat motifs, as are found in a number of resistance gene products from other plants. prf mutant alleles (4) were found to carry alterations within the Prf coding sequence. A genomic fragment containing Prf complemented a prf mutant tomato line both for resistance to Pst strains expressing avrPto and for sensitivity to the insecticide Fenthion. Prf resides in the middle of the Pto gene cluster, 24 kb from the Pto gene and 500 bp from the Fen gene.

Intergeneric transfer and functional expression of the tomato disease resistance gene Pto

Plant disease resistance loci have been used successfully in breeding programs to transfer traits from resistant germplasm to susceptible plant cultivars. The molecular cloning of plant disease resistance genes now permits the transfer of such traits across species boundaries by genetic transformation of recipient hosts. The tomato disease resistance gene Pto confers resistance to strains of the bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv tomato expressing the avirulence gene avrPto. Transformation of Nicotiana benthamiana with Pto results in specific resistance to P. s. pv tabaci strains carrying avrPto. The resistant phenotype is manifested by a strong inhibition of bacterial growth and the ability to exhibit a hypersensitive response. Resistance cosegregates with the Pto gene in transgene selfings and testcrosses. Our results demonstrate the conservation of disease resistance functions across genus boundaries and suggest that the utility of host-specific resistance genes can be extended by intergeneric transfer.