Weighing the options in the pharmacotherapy of obesity

In industrial nations the most common form of malnutrition is obesity. Obesity is a chronic disease associated with increased morbidity and mortality. Unfortunately, the simplest treatment for obesity, increasing physical activity and reducing caloric intake, for the vast majority of patients is completely ineffective over the long term. Weight lost is quickly regained, and body weights after intervention often exceed pretreatment levels. Early pharmacotherapy had been successful in reduction and maintenance of weight loss; unfortunately, unforeseen side effects contributed to an unacceptable risk/benefit balance that necessitated the withdrawal of many of these agents. Current pharmacotherapy is limited, with only 2 compounds accepted for long-term use for the treatment of obesity. Both sibutramine and orlistat contribute to modest weight loss and maintenance and reduce obesity-associated risk factors. Beginning with the discovery of leptin in the mid-1990s, a renaissance in obesity research has taken place. This research has provided more detailed insights into the regulation of energy homeostasis. The central feedback regulation loops involving the leptin and melanocortinergic pathways have provided several targets for therapeutic intervention, including leptin analogs and melanocortin agonists. Several peripheral targets including uncoupling proteins and beta3-adrenergic receptor are also being explored for their anti-obesity potential. Therefore, it can be expected that new pharmacotherapies will be available to help combat the epidemic of obesity.

Y-receptor affinity modulation by the design of pancreatic polypeptide/neuropeptide Y chimera led to Y(5)-receptor ligands with picomolar affinity

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) and pancreatic polypeptide (PP) bind to the Y-receptors with very different affinities: NPY has high affinity for the receptors Y(1), Y(2) and Y(5), while PP binds only to Y(4)-receptor with picomolar affinity. By exchanging of specific amino acid positions between the two peptides, we developed 38 full-length PP/NPY chimeras with binding properties that are completely different from those of the two native ligands. Pig NPY (pNPY) analogs containing the segment 19-23 from human PP (hPP) bound to the Y-receptors with much lower affinity than NPY itself. The affinity of the hPP analog containing the pNPY segments 1-7 and 19-23 was comparable to that of pNPY at the Y(1)- and Y(5)-receptor subtypes, and to that of hPP at the Y(4)-receptor. Furthermore, the presence of the segments 1-7 from chicken PP (cPP) and 19-23 from pNPY within the hPP sequence led to a ligand with IC(50) of 40 pM at the Y(5)-receptor. This is the most potent Y(5)-receptor ligand known so far, with 15-fold higher affinity than NPY.

The first selective agonist for the neuropeptide YY5 receptor increases food intake in rats

The first Y(5) receptor-selective analog of neuropeptide Y (NPY), [Ala(31),Aib(32)]NPY, has been developed and biologically characterized. Using competition binding assays on cell lines that express different Y receptors, we determined the affinity of this analog to be 6 nm at the human Y(5) receptor, >500 nm at the Y(1) and Y(2) receptors, and >1000 nm at the Y(4) receptor. Activity studies performed in vitro using a cAMP enzyme immunoassay, and in vivo using food intake studies in rats, showed that the peptide acted as an agonist. Further peptides obtained by the combination of the Ala(31)-Aib(32) motif with chimeric peptides containing segments of NPY and pancreatic polypeptide displayed the same selectivity and even higher affinity (up to 0.2 nm) for the Y(5) receptor. In vivo administration of the new Y(5) receptor-selective agonists significantly stimulated feeding in rats. The NMR solution structures of NPY and [Ala(31),Aib(32)]NPY showed a different conformation in the C-terminal region, where the alpha-helix of NPY was substituted by a more flexible, 3(10)-helical turn structure.

Effects of the neuropeptide Y Y(2) receptor antagonist BIIE0246 on presynaptic inhibition by neuropeptide Y in rat hippocampal slices

We previously reported that (S)-N(2)-[[1-[2-[4-[(R,S)-5, 11-dihydro-6(6h)-oxodibenz[b, e]azepin-11-yl]-1-piperazinyl]-2-oxoethyl]cylopentyl]a cetyl]-N-[2-[1, 2-dihydro-3,5(4H)-dioxo-1,2-diphenyl-3H-1,2, 4-triazol-4-yl]ethyl]argininamid, BIIE0246, is a potent and highly selective neuropeptide Y Y(2) receptor antagonist. Neuropeptide Y Y(2) receptors have been proposed to mediate the inhibition by neuropeptide Y of excitatory synaptic transmission in rat hippocampus. Therefore, we investigated the effects of BIIE0246 on the electrophysiological properties of neuropeptide Y in rat hippocampal slices and determined the affinity of this novel antagonist for rat hippocampal neuropeptide Y Y(2) receptors. BIIE0246 displayed an affinity of IC(50)=4.0+/-1.6 (n=4) for neuropeptide Y receptor binding sites labelled by 125I-neuropeptide Y in rat hippocampal membranes. At a concentration of 1 microM, BIIE0246 completely antagonized the inhibitory effects of 300 nM neuropeptide Y on synaptic transmission in rat hippocampal slices. This is the first study showing that a selective neuropeptide Y Y(2) receptor antagonist is able to block neuropeptide Y mediated effects in the hippocampus and unambiguously characterizes the presynaptic receptor in the rat hippocampus as the neuropeptide Y Y(2) receptor.

The role of NPY in metabolic homeostasis: implications for obesity therapy

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is a 36 amino acid amidated peptide which has now emerged as an important regulator of feeding behaviour. Upon intracerebroventricular (icv.) administration, NPY produces a pronounced feeding response in a variety of species. The actions of NPY are believed to be mediated by a family of receptor subtypes named Y1 - y6. Recent studies suggest that the Y1 and Y5 receptor subtypes are intimately involved in NPY induced feeding. This review presents preclinical data obtained with receptor subtype selective agonists and antagonists as well as findings from knockout mice. These new data suggest that NPY receptor antagonists may become an additional option for treating human obesity.

BIIE0246: a selective and high affinity neuropeptide Y Y(2) receptor antagonist

The in vitro biological characterisation of the first potent and selective non-peptide neuropeptide Y Y(2) receptor antagonist, (S)-N(2)-[[1-[2-[4-[(R,S)-5,11-dihydro-6(6h)-oxodibenz[b, e]azepin-11-yl]-1-piperazinyl]-2-oxoethyl] cylopentyl] acetyl]-N-[2-[1,2-dihydro-3,5(4H)-dioxo-1,2-diphenyl-3H-1,2, 4-triazol-4-yl]ethyl]-argininamid (BIIE0246) is reported. BIIE0246 displaced [125I]neuropeptide Y with high affinity (IC(50)=3.3 nM) from the human neuropeptide Y Y(2) receptor and proved to be highly selective. BIIE0246 displayed antagonistic properties and thus represents the first selective non-peptide neuropeptide Y Y(2) receptor antagonist.

Comparison of antibodies directed against receptor segments of NPY-receptors

The Y1-, Y2-, Y4- and Y5-receptor, which belong to the rhodopsin-like G-protein coupled, 7 transmembrane helix spanning receptors, bind the 36-mer neuromodulator NPY (neuropeptide Y) with nanomolar affinity. Synthetic fragments of the second (E2) and third (E3) extracellular loop were used to generate subtype selective anti-receptor antibodies against the Y-receptors. As investigated on intact receptors by ELISA and on solubilized receptors by SDS-PAGE and subsequent Western blotting, subtype selectivity was only partly achieved. Nevertheless, selectivity can be obtained by using several antisera in combination. These antibodies represent tools for molecular mass determination, receptor purification by affinity chromatography with antibody-columns and receptor localization studies.

Hammerhead ribozymes that selectively cleave the NPY Y1, Y4, and Y5 receptor full-length RNA

The concept of exploiting the ribozyme catalytic center for cleaving a specific target RNA transcript was applied to the design of selective ribozymes for the rat Y1, Y4, and Y5 receptor subtypes. Ribozymes selective for the neuropeptide Y (NPY) receptor subtypes were designed and chemically modified. Recognition sites were selected both according to the extent of their sequence homology between the receptor subtypes and according to the localization within single-stranded regions accessible for hybridization. Stability of the ribozymes against nucleolytic activities was increased by introducing 2'-O-methylribonucleosides and 3'-terminal modifications, such as inverted ends or dideoxynucleosides. Ribozymes cleaving the full-length rat Y1, Y4 (1200 nt), and Y5 receptor mRNA (2200 nt) were identified. The specificity of the recognition sites and the subtype selectivity of the ribozyme-mediated cleavage was demonstrated.

Subtype selectivity of the novel nonpeptide neuropeptide Y Y1 receptor antagonist BIBO 3304 and its effect on feeding in rodents

1. The novel Y1-selective argininamide derivative BIBO 3304 ((R)-N-[[4-(aminocarbonylaminomethyl)-phenyl]methyl]-N2-(diphen ylacetyl)-argininamide trifluoroacetate) has been synthesized and was examined for its subtype selectivity, its in vitro antagonistic properties and its food intake inhibitory properties. 2. BIBO 3304 displayed subnanomolar affinity for both the human and the rat Y1 receptor (IC50 values 0.38+/-0.06 nM and 0.72+/-0.42 nM, respectively). The inactive enantiomer of BIBO 3304 (BIBO 3457) had low affinity for both the human and rat Y1 receptor subtype (IC50> 1000 nM). BIBO 3304 showed low affinity for the human Y2 receptor, human and rat Y4 receptor as well as for the human and rat Y5 receptor (IC50 values > 1000 nM). 3. 30 microg BIBO 3304 administered into the paraventricular nucleus inhibited the feeding response induced by 1 microg NPY as well as the hyperphagia induced by a 24 h fast implying a role for Y1 receptors in NPY mediated feeding. The inactive enantiomer had no effect. 4. BIBO 3304 inhibits neither the galanin nor the noradrenaline induced orexigenic response. but it blocked feeding behaviour elicited by both [Leu31, Pro24]NPY and NPY (3 36) suggesting an interplay between different NPY receptor subtypes in feeding behavior. 5. The present study reveals that BIBO 3304 is a subtype selective nonpeptide antagonist with subnanomolar affinity for the Y1 receptor subtype that significantly inhibits food intake induced by application of NPY or by fasting.

Divalent cations influencing neuropeptide Y receptor subtype binding in rat hippocampus and cortex membranes as well as in recombinant cells

At least six types of neuropeptide Y (NPY) receptors (Y1-Y6) have been pharmacologically distinguished of which only the Y1, Y2, Y4 and Y5 subtypes have been thoroughly characterized. In order to further classify receptor subtypes in the brain, we performed receptor binding studies using rat cortical and hippocampal membranes and, in particular, studied the effects of different ion compositions of the buffer on the binding behaviour of several NPY agonists and the Y1 receptor antagonist BIBO3304. Ca2+ was necessary for reliable Y1 receptor subtype classification in rat cortical membranes (with Hill coefficients close to unity) for the peptide agonists. This was further substantiated by the Y1 selective antagonist BIBO3304 displaying an IC50 value of 0.9+/-0.5 nM for 80% of the total receptors, the remaining sites being BIBO3304 insensitive (IC50 > 10,000 nM). Replacing Ca2+ by Mn2+ resulted in a complete loss of BIBO3304 sensitive sites. On the other hand, using hippocampal membrane preparations, displacement curves with Hill coefficients close to unity were only obtained in the presence of Mn2+ ions, yielding a binding profile of receptors with low affinity for [Leu31,Pro34]NPY (IC50 = 50 nM) and for BIBO3304 (IC50 > 10,000 nM). Addition of Mn2+ ions to cortical or of Ca2+ ions to hippocampal membrane preparations resulted in binding profiles differing from typical receptor classification. Therefore, the influence of divalent cations on Y1 receptors expressed on recombinant cells was studied. In this monoreceptor system, Ca2+ was necessary to detect high amounts of specific binding and Mn2+ ions induced a change in the affinity state. These findings indicate that apparent NPY receptor heterogeneity does not only depend on the brain region examined and that divalent ions modulate ligand binding properties.

Probing of the neuropeptide Y-Y1-receptors interaction with anti-receptor antibodies

The Y1 receptor, which belongs to the family of rhodopsin-like GTP-binding protein-coupled, seven-transmembrane helix-spanning receptors, binds the 36-mer neuromodulator neuropeptide Y (NPY) with nanomolar affinity. Synthetic fragments of the N-terminus, extracellular loops and C-terminus of the Y1 receptor were used to generate 18 anti-receptor antibodies; ten of them recognize the receptor expressed on intact cells as well as on membranes that have been prepared (with the exception of one antibody raised against the intracellular C-terminus) as investigated by ELISA. SDS/PAGE of solubilized membranes, subsequent Western blotting and staining with the antibodies revealed two proteins of 73 kDa and 51 kDa for both, the rat and the human receptor. Competition with neuropeptide Y showed that the binding of seven antibodies is strongly inhibited in the presence of the native ligand. Using photoactivatible analogues, it could be demonstrated that the competition efficiency strongly depends on the position of the crosslinker within the ligand. Based on these studies, a model for the ligand-receptor interaction is suggested. These antibodies represent novel tools for the structural characterization of the Y1 receptor and its interaction with NPY and antagonists as well as for localization studies.

The bioactive conformation of neuropeptide Y analogues at the human Y2-receptor

Several attempts to investigate the bioactive conformation of neuropeptide Y have been made so far. As cyclic peptides are much more rigid than linear ones, we decided to synthesise cyclic analogues of the C-terminal dodekapeptide amide neuropeptide Y Ac-25-36. Cyclisation was performed by side chain lactamisation of ornithine or lysine and glutamic or aspartic acid. The affinity of the 19 peptides ranged from Ki 0.6 nM to greater than 10,000 nM. We found that the size, position, orientation, configuration. and the location of the cycle plays an important role for receptor recognition. Circular dichroic studies have been performed to characterise the secondary structure of each peptide. Receptor binding studies were carried out on human neuroblastoma cell lines SK-N-MC (Y1) and SMS-KAN (Y2), and on rabbit kidney membranes (Y2). The pharmacological and spectral data showed that the alpha-helix content was not the predominant factor for high Y2-receptor affinity. Instead, the location and the size of the hydrophobic lactam bridge, and the conserved C-terminal tetrapeptide (Arg-Glu-Arg-Tyr) seemed to be the main parameters. Using molecular dynamics, the structures of four cyclic peptides (i,i+4) have been investigated and compared with the previously published NMR structure of one of the cyclic peptide analogues. Significant differences have been found in the overall three-dimensional fold of the peptides. The distances between the N- and the C-terminus allow discrimination between peptides with high binding affinity and those with low binding affinity, because of the correlation that was found with the measured affinity. Thus, this study suggests that a turn-like structure and the orientation of the C-terminus towards the N-terminus play major roles for high affinity binding of cyclic dodecapeptides to the Y2-receptor. None of the cyclic segments exhibits significant affinity to the Y1-receptor. Thus, these results support the hypothesis of a discontinuous binding site of neuropeptide Y at the Y1-receptor.

Modified, cyclic dodecapeptide analog of neuropeptide Y is the smallest full agonist at the human Y2 receptor

In order to stabilize the C-terminal dodecapeptide of neuropeptide Y (NPY) we replaced Leu28 and Thr32 by Lys and Glu, respectively, and subsequently linked these residues by lactamization. This peptide analog of NPY shows a more than 100-fold increase in affinity compared to the C-terminal linear dodecapeptide in receptor binding studies performed at human neuroblastoma cells SMS-KAN, which exclusively express the Y2 receptor subtype. Signal transduction was investigated by measuring Ca2+ current inhibition in human SH-SY5Y cells and cyclic [Lys28-Glu32] NPY Ac-25-36 and NPY were shown to be equipotent in this assay. Thus, this molecule is the smallest Y2 receptor selective full agonist of NPY. Using 2D-NMR experiments and molecular modelling techniques, the structures of the linear and cyclic peptides have been investigated and significant differences have been found, which may explain the improvement in biological activity. Thus, a model of the bioactive conformation of NPY at the human Y2 receptor is suggested.

BIBP 3226, the first selective neuropeptide Y1 receptor antagonist: a review of its pharmacological properties

Based on the assumption that the pharmacophoric groups interacting with the Y1 receptor are located in the C-terminal part of neuropeptide Y, low molecular weight compounds with high affinity and selectivity for the Y1 receptor were designed and synthesized. The prototype BIBP 3226 possesses affinity for the Y1 receptor in the nanomolar range. In addition, this compound is selective displaying rather low affinity for Y2, Y3, Y4 and a set of 60 other receptors. Both biochemical and pharmacological studies showed that BIBP 3226 behaves as a competitive antagonist. Using BIBP 3226 it was possible to investigate the role of NPY and/or Y1 receptors in blood pressure regulation. The interesting observation was that antagonism to Y1 receptors had no major influence on the basal blood pressure but attenuated stress induced hypertension. This strongly supports the hypothesis that NPY is mainly released during stress involving intense sympathetic nervous system activation. Moreover, BIBP 3226 can be used to characterize NPY receptor subtypes. For instance, we were able to show that presynaptic NPY receptors mediating catecholamine release do not solely belong to the Y2 subtype, but that presynaptic Y1 receptors also exist. In conclusion, BIBP 3226 has been shown to be an important tool for the elucidation of the physiological role of Y1 receptors in the cardiovascular system.

Subtype selectivity and antagonistic profile of the nonpeptide Y1 receptor antagonist BIBP 3226

In the present study, the subtype specificity and species selectivity of the nonpeptide BIBP 3226, as well as its in vitro antagonism of neuropeptide Y (NPY)-mediated second messengers have been investigated. Radiolabeled NPY is potently displaced by BIBP 3226 [(R)-N2-(diphenylacetyl)-N-[(4-hydroxyphenylmethyl]-D- arginine amide] on human Y1 receptor expressing Chinese hamster ovary-K1 cells (Ki = 0.47 +/- 0.07 nM). SK-N-MC human neuroblastoma cells (Ki = 5.1 +/- 0.5 nM) and the rat parietal cortex membranes (Ki = 6.8 +/- 0.7 nM). The interaction of BIBP 3226 with the Y1 receptor is stereoselective, because the (S)-enantiomer of the (R)-configured BIBP 3226 displays almost no affinity (Ki > 10,000 nM). In contrast, concentrations up to 10 microM BIBP 3226 do not displace [125I]NPY from the human Y2 receptor (neuroblastoma cell line SMS-KAN), the rabbit Y2 receptor (kidney) and the rat Y2 receptor (hippocampus). Functional antagonism could be shown for the human Y1 receptor: 0.1 microM BIBP 3226 antagonizes the NPY induced Ca++ mobilization (pKb = 7.5 +/- 0.17) as well as the NPY-mediated inhibition of cyclic AMP synthesis (pKb = 8.2 +/- 0.24) in SK-N-MC cells. In contrast, none of the formerly described putative antagonists PYX-2, [D-Trp32]NPY and benextramine could be characterized as high affinity Y1 receptor antagonists. The 18 amino acid NPY analog EXBP 68 Ile-Glu-Pro-Orn-Tyr-Arg-Leu-Arg-Tyr-NH2, cyclic (2,4'), (2',4')-diamide] displayed Y1-selective affinity with in vitro antagonistic properties (Ki = 0.33 +/- 0.04 nM and pKb = 8.4 +/- 0.07) in SK-N-MC cells. Therefore, BIBP 3226 is the first potent and subtype-selective nonpeptide Y1 receptor antagonist.

Pharmacological characterization of the selective nonpeptide neuropeptide Y Y1 receptor antagonist BIBP 3226

The present study was undertaken to investigate the in vitro and in vivo pharmacological profile of the novel, nonpeptide neuropeptide Y (NPY) Y1-selective antagonist, BIBP 3226 [(R)-N2-(diphenylacetyl)-N-[(4-hydroxyphenyl)methyl]-D-arginine-am ide], and a recently described peptidic structure [Ile-Glu-Pro-Orn-Tyr-Arg-Leu-Arg-Tyr-NH2, cyclic (2,4'), (2',4)-diamide]. BIBP 3226 antagonized the NPY Y1 receptor-mediated decrease in the twitch response in the rabbit vas deferens preparation with a pKb value of 6.98 +/- 0.06 (n = 16). It showed no affinity (EC50 > 1 microM) for NPY Y2 receptors in the rat vas deferens. NPY-induced increases in perfusion pressure in the isolated perfused rat kidney and rabbit ear preparations were antagonized with IC50 values of 26.8 +/- 4.5 (n = 4) and 214 +/- 30 nM (n = 4), respectively. The NPY-mediated potentiation of the noradrenaline elicited increase in perfusion pressure in the rat mesenteric bed was antagonized with an IC50 value of 976 (542-1760) nM. The NPY-induced increase in blood pressure in the pithed rat was inhibited by BIBP 3226 dose-dependently (ED50 = 0.11 +/- 0.03 mg/kg i.v.), whereas no effect of BIBP 3226 (1 mg/kg i.v.) was observed for the noradrenaline-, angiotensin-, endothelin- or vasopressin-induced pressor response. The data presented demonstrate that BIBP 3226 is a competitive and NPY Y1-selective antagonist. The peptidic compound proved to possess high potency for NPY Y1 receptors, but showed both agonistic as well as antagonistic properties.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

A rational approach for the development of reduced-size analogues of neuropeptide Y with high affinity to the Y1 receptor

Four sets of centrally truncated analogues of neuropeptide Y have been synthesized. In each series the N-terminal part was constant, while the C-terminal segment was systematically varied in length. The C- and N-terminal parts were linked by 6-aminohexanoic acid. The affinity to the Y1 receptor was investigated on human neuroblastoma cells SK-N-MC. Significant differences were found between the series of peptides as well as within each set. Remarkably, the affinity did not solely depend on the length of the segment, and with increasing numbers of residues the IC50 values were not always decreased. With a given N-terminal segment, only one optimal length of the C-terminal segment was found, which suggests that it is not the amino acids themselves but their 3D arrangement and orientation that is important for high receptor affinity.

Labeling of neuropeptide Y receptors in SK-N-MC cells using the novel, nonpeptide Y1 receptor-selective antagonist [3H]BIBP3226

The binding of tritium-labelled BIBP3226, N2-(diphenylacetyl)-N-[(4-hydroxy-phenyl)methyl]-D-arginine amide, to human neuroblastoma SK-N-MC cells was investigated. [3H]BIBP3226 reversibly binds to neuropeptide Y receptors of the Y1 subtype expressed in SK-N-MC cells with a KD of 2.1 +/- 0.3 nM (mean +/- S.E.M., n = 3) and a Bmax of 58,400 +/- 1100 sites/cell. Non-specific binding did not exceed 30% of the total radioactivity bound at KD. In competition experiments [3H]BIBP3226 is concentration-dependently displaced by neuropeptide Y and its peptide analogues with an affinity pattern neuropeptide Y = [Leu31, Pro34]neuropeptide Y >> neuropeptide Y-(18-36). This rank order of potencies is consistent with the interaction of [3H]BIBP3226 with neuropeptide Y receptors of the Y1 subtype. Therefore, [3H]BIBP3226 can be used as selective ligand to study neuropeptide Y Y1 receptors.

Synthesis, receptor binding, and crosslinking of photoactive analogues of neuropeptide Y

Five photoactive analogues of porcine neuropeptide Y (NPY), a 36 amino acid hormone of the pancreatic polypeptide family, have been synthesized by solid phase peptide synthesis method, Fmoc/tBu strategy and carefully characterized. The analogues contain the photoactivatable amino acid 4'-(3-trifluoromethyl)-3H-diazirine-3-yl-phenyl-alanine ((Tmd)Phe) individually at different positions (1, 20, 21, 27 or 36) instead of tyrosine in the wildtype sequence. Affinity to membranes prepared from SMS-KAN cells, which stably express the Y2 receptor has been investigated by measuring the displacement of 125I-Bolton Hunter-NPY. After incubation of the membranes with different concentrations of the crosslinker and subsequent photolysis, the specific binding of 125I-Bolton Hunter-NPY at those membranes was tested in order to quantify the crosslinking efficiency. Whereas [(Tmd)Phe20] NPY, [(Tmd)Phe21] NPY and [(Tmd)Phe27] NPY revealed highest affinity to the Y2 receptor, crosslinking was most efficient when Tyr36 was replaced by (Tmd)Phe. This is in good agreement with the previously suggested C-terminal binding site of neuropeptide Y.

Receptor binding profiles of NPY analogues and fragments in different tissues and cell lines

To investigate receptor selectivity and possible species selectivity of a number of NPY analogues and fragments, receptor binding studies were performed using cell lines and membranes of several species. NPY displays 4-25-fold higher affinity for the Y2 receptor than for the Y1 receptor. The affinity of [Leu31,Pro34]NPY is 7-60-fold higher for the Y1 receptor when compared with the Y2 subtype. Species selectivity within the Y2 receptors is demonstrated by PYY(3-36), NPY(2-36), NPY(22-36), and NPY(26-36). It is shown that NPY(22-36) is species selective for the human Y2 subtype (K1 of 0.3 nM) compared with the rabbit and rat Y2 receptor (K1 of 2 and 10 nM, respectively). PYY(3-36) displays highest affinity for the human and rabbit Y2 subtype (K1 of 0.03 and 0.17 nM). The screening of NPY analogues and fragments revealed that highest affinity for the human Y2 receptor is shown by NPY(2-36) and PYY(3-36). In addition, PYY(3-36) and NPY(2-36) are not only subtype selective, but also species selective.

The first highly potent and selective non-peptide neuropeptide Y Y1 receptor antagonist: BIBP3226

The design and subsequent in vitro and in vivo biological characterisation of the first potent and selective non-peptide neuropeptide Y Y1 receptor antagonist, BIBP3226 ((R)-N2-(diphenylacetyl)-N-[(4-hydroxyphenyl)methyl]-argininami de) is reported. BIBP3226 displaced 125I-labelled neuropeptide Y with high affinity (Ki = 7 nM) from the human neuropeptide Y Y1 receptor and proved to be highly selective. BIBP3226 displayed potent antagonistic properties both in in vitro and in vivo models and thus represents the first selective non-peptide neuropeptide Y Y1 receptor antagonist.

Four amino acid exchanges convert a diazepam-insensitive, inverse agonist-preferring GABAA receptor into a diazepam-preferring GABAA receptor

Benzodiazepines (BZ) exert their effects through GABAA receptors, which belong to the superfamily of ligand-gated ion channels. Coexpression of recombinant alpha, beta, and gamma subunits in a cell culture system mimics the BZ binding sites. The alpha variants largely determine the nature of the BZ binding site in such alpha i beta j gamma k heteromultimers (i = 1-6; j = 1-3; k = 1-3). Notably, the alpha 1 and alpha 6 variants confer high and low affinity for BZ agonists to the resulting receptor subtype, respectively. Glycine/glutamate and histidine/arginine positions in the alpha subunits of alpha x beta 2 gamma 2 receptors are involved in BZ I versus BZ II type selectivity. We now identify four amino acids in alpha 6 which together increase the affinity of the mutant alpha x beta 2 gamma 2 receptor for classical BZ receptor agonists above the level seen for any wild-type GABAA/BZ receptor. The most pronounced effect was due to an isoleucine to valine exchange. It simultaneously decreased the affinity for the BZ partial inverse agonist Ro 15-4513 20-fold and increased the affinity for diazepam 4-fold. The four amino acid residues stretch over most part of the N-terminal extracellular domain of the alpha subunit, suggesting that amino acids distant in the primary sequence form the BZ binding pocket.

Complete L-alanine scan of neuropeptide Y reveals ligands binding to Y1 and Y2 receptors with distinguished conformations

The synthesis of more than fifty 36-residue oligopeptide analogs of neuropeptide Y (NPY) and their affinity to human Y1 and Y2 receptors is described. Each amino acid of the natural sequence was replaced by L-alanine, the four alanine residues at position 12, 14, 18 and 23 were replaced by glycine. Additional residues were exchanged to closely related ones in order to characterize the prerequisites for binding. A combination of automated single and multiple peptide synthesis using fluoren-9-ylmethoxycarbonyl/tert-butoxy strategy was applied. The purified peptides were characterized by electrospray mass spectrometry, analytical HPLC and amino acid analysis. Binding was investigated by displacement of 125I-labelled neuropeptide Y from human neuroblastoma cell lines SK-N-MC and SMS-KAN. Whereas Pro2 and the integrity of the neuropeptide Y loop is important for the binding to the Y1 receptor, exchanges within the C-terminal helix affect the affinity to the Y2 receptor. The C-terminal pentapeptide amide is important for both receptors and probably represents the binding site. However, Arg33 and Arg35 may not be exchanged by L-alanine in the Y1 system, whereas Arg35 and Tyr36 are the most susceptible residues in the Y2 system. In order to distinguish between conformational effects and direct hormone/receptor interaction via the side chains of neuropeptide Y, circular dichroic studies of the alanine-containing peptides were performed and structure affinity relationships are discussed. Comparing the affinities of the neuropeptide Y analogs to Y1 and Y2 receptors significant differences were found for the two binding sites, which suggests a different active conformation of neuropeptide Y at the two subtypes of receptors. Using molecular dynamics calculations, two distinct conformations were identified which are in good agreement with the data obtained by structure/affinity investigations.

Adrenomedullin mediates vasodilation via CGRP1 receptors

Adrenomedullin is a recently discovered 52 amino acid polypeptide with potent hypotensive activity. The peptide possesses 21% homology with the amino acid sequence of human calcitonin gene-related peptide-alpha (hCGRP-alpha). In 125I-hCGRP-alpha receptor binding experiments using membranes from human neuroblastoma cells (SK-N-MC) adrenomedullin is a potent competitor with a Ki of 0.37 nM. In SK-N-MC cells hCGRP-alpha and adrenomedullin concentration-dependently increase cAMP levels with -logEC50 values of 9.65 and 7.75, respectively. Both responses were attenuated in the presence of 30 nM CGRP[8-37], a CGRP1 receptor antagonist. In isolated rat hearts, perfused at constant flow, bolus infusion of adrenomedullin (1 to 100 nM) resulted in a concentration-dependent, pronounced and long-lasting vasodilation with an approximate EC50 of about 3 nM. This effect was markedly attenuated in the presence of 100 nM CGRP[8-37]. In this model, bolus infusion of hCGRP-alpha (0.01 to 100 nM) evoked a comparable vasodilation with an approximate EC50 of 0.5 nM. This effect was also potently inhibited in the presence of CGRP[8-37]. These results suggest that adrenomedullin-mediated vasodilation is linked to the activation of CGRP1 receptors in the coronary vascular system.

Current potentiation by diazepam but not GABA sensitivity is determined by a single histidine residue

The GABAA/benzodiazepine receptor is the principal inhibitory neurotransmitter receptor in the mammalian brain and is assembled from sequence-related subunits, such as alpha 1 beta 2 gamma 2. In contrast to alpha 1 beta 2 gamma 2 receptors, alpha 6 beta 2 gamma 2 receptors fail to exhibit high-affinity binding of allosteric positive modulators of GABA-activated chloride currents. The critical determinant responsible for this difference in ligand binding was previously traced to a position in the extracellular domain of the two alpha subunits (alpha 1 His100 and alpha 6 Arg 101). We now show by patch clamp analysis that this amino acid exchange also determines the diazepam potentiation. Thus, alpha 1(Arg101)beta 2 gamma 2 receptors do not, but alpha 6(His100)beta 2 gamma 2 receptors do exhibit diazepam potentiation. However, the same extracellular determinant is not responsible for the increased GABA sensitivity of alpha 6 beta 2 gamma 2 receptors relative to alpha 1 beta 2 gamma 2 receptors as revealed by electrophysiological analysis and by differential GABA sensitivity of [35S]TBPS binding.

Further characterization of neuropeptide Y receptor subtypes using centrally truncated analogs of neuropeptide Y: evidence for subtype-differentiating effects on affinity and intrinsic efficacy

Previous attempts to classify neuropeptide Y receptor subtypes suffered from relying only on carboxyl-terminal analogs and fragments of neuropeptide Y. We have tested the potency and affinity of chemically different compounds, i.e., centrally truncated analogs of neuropeptide Y, in three Y1-like (Ca2+ mobilization in HEL cells, blood pressure increases in pithed rats, and 125I-neuropeptide Y binding in SK-N-MC cells) and two Y2-like (125I-neuropeptide Y binding to rabbit kidney membranes and presynaptic inhibition in rat vas deferens) model systems of neuropeptide Y receptors. Our data confirm the concept of two major subclasses of neuropeptide Y receptors, with some centrally truncated neuropeptide Y analogs having high affinity for Y2-like and low affinity for Y1-like neuropeptide Y receptors. Some of the truncated neuropeptide Y analogs are antagonists at Y1-like receptors and (possibly partial) agonists at Y2-like receptors. Our data also indicate that amino acid residues distal from the amino- and carboxyl-terminal ends of the peptide may subtype-selectively affect affinity and intrinsic efficacy of peptide agonists at neuropeptide Y receptors.

A single histidine in GABAA receptors is essential for benzodiazepine agonist binding

Benzodiazepines (BZ) modulate neurotransmitter-evoked chloride currents at the gamma-aminobutyric acid type A (GABAA) receptor, the major inhibitory ion channel in the mammalian brain. This receptor is composed of structurally distinct subunits whose numerous molecular variants underlie the observed diversity in the properties of the BZ site. Pharmacologically distinct BZ sites can be recreated by the recombinant coexpression of any one of six alpha subunits, a beta subunit variant, and the gamma 2 subunit. In these receptors the alpha variant determines the affinity for ligand binding of the BZ site. Notably, the alpha 1 and alpha 6 variants impart on alpha chi beta 2 gamma 2 receptors high and negligible affinity, respectively, to BZ ligands with sedative as well as anxiolytic activities. By exchanging domains between the alpha 1 and alpha 6 variants, we show that a portion of the large extracellular domain determines sensitivity toward these ligands. Furthermore, we identify a single histidine residue in the alpha 1 variant, replaced by an arginine in alpha 6, as a major determinant for high affinity binding of BZ agonists. This residue also plays a role in determining high affinity binding for BZ antagonists. Hence, this histidine present in the alpha 1, alpha 2, alpha 3, and alpha 5 subunits appears to be a key residue for the action of clinically used BZ ligands.