Spread of awareness of COVID-19 between December 2019 and March 2020 in France

During the early phase of outbreaks, awareness of the presence of the disease plays an important role in transmission dynamics. To investigate the processes of how people become aware of a disease, we conducted two complementary investigations. First, we surveyed 868 academic researchers in France, on the time and circumstances when they became aware of COVID-19 as an important event. We found that 25% did so before February 18th (first death in France), 50% did so before March 10th (first presidential allocution) and 75% did so before March 16th (announcement of the lockdown). Awareness came from nine categories of circumstances: (1) decisions taken by the government (elicited by 35.7% participants); (2) information from media or social media (24.7%); (3) conversation with friends (22.4%); (4) observed changes in their personal lives (14.0%); (5) decisions taken by the employer (9.2%); (6) observed changes at work (9.9%); (7) suspected case of COVID-19 in their entourage (3.1%); (8) fear for oneself or their entourage (2.8%) and (9) self-appraisal of scientific reports (2.8%). Second, we appraised three general media in France (a television news show, a radio news show, and a newspaper) and showed that COVID-19 became a preeminent topic only after March 1st 2020 when the epidemic is present on national soil. Our results show that multiple intricated factors prompt the awareness of an emerging infectious disease. Awareness is not solely driven by general media as they begin to focus on the topic late.

Polymorphisms in the genes encoding platelet-derived growth factor A and alpha receptor

Platelet-derived growth factors (PDGFs) may play an important role in the development of atherosclerosis acting as chemoattractants and mitogens for vascular smooth muscle cells and macrophages. Three dimeric forms of PDGF (AA, AB, BB) have different activities due to distinct binding properties mediated by two types of PDGF receptors (Ralpha, Rbeta). To investigate the possible contribution of molecular variants in the human PDGF-A and PDGF-Ralpha genes to coronary heart disease we screened these genes for polymorphisms by polymerase chain reaction/single-strand conformation polymorphism analysis. A total of 600 men with myocardial infarction and 717 age-matched male controls from four populations in Northern Ireland and France (the ECTIM Study) were gneotyped for newly identified polymorphisms in the genes encoding PDGF-A (C-26IN3T, H69H, C+12IN5T) and PDGF-Ralpha [-1630 I/D (+/-AACTT), A-1506G, C-1390G, G-956A, C-908A, G-793T, +69 I/D (+/-GA)] using allele-specific oligonucleotides. All PDGF-Ralpha polymorphisms, except C-908A, involving a nucleotide change in a common consensus site for GCF and SP-1 transcription factors, were in nearly complete association, generating two major haplotypes. The PDGF-A and PDGF-Ralpha polymorphisms provided a heterozygosity of 0.69 and 0.40, respectively. Genotype and allele frequencies of the PDGF-A and PDGF-Ralpha polymorphisms did not differ between patients with myocardial infarction and controls in either country. None of the polymorphisms investigated was associated with blood pressure, coronary artery stenosis, or any biochemical parameter available in the ECTIM Study.

Sequence diversity in 36 candidate genes for cardiovascular disorders

Two strategies involving whole-genome association studies have been proposed for the identification of genes involved in complex diseases. The first one seeks to characterize all common variants of human genes and to test their association with disease. The second one seeks to develop dense maps of single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and to detect susceptibility genes through linkage disequilibrium. We performed a molecular screening of the coding and/or flanking regions of 36 candidate genes for cardiovascular diseases. All polymorphisms identified by this screening were further genotyped in 750 subjects of European descent. In the whole set of genes, the lengths explored spanned 53.8 kb in the 5' regions, 68.4 kb in exonic regions, and 13 kb in the 3' regions. The strength of linkage disequilibrium within candidate regions suggests that genomewide maps of SNPs might be efficient ways to identify new disease-susceptibility genes, provided that the maps are sufficiently dense. However, the relatively large number of polymorphisms within coding and regulatory regions of candidate genes raises the possibility that several of them might be functional and that the pattern of genotype-phenotype association might be more complex than initially envisaged, as actually has been observed in some well-characterized genes. These results argue in favor of both genomewide association studies and detailed studies of the overall sequence variation of candidate genes, as complementary approaches.

Genetic determination of plasma aldosterone levels in essential hypertension

The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system plays an important role in large artery structure and blood pressure homeostasis. Among the genes coding for different components of this system, the aldosterone synthase (CYP11B2) gene could play an important role, but has been less investigated. We examined the role of two variations of the aldosterone synthase gene (CYP11B2), one located in the promoter of the gene, T-344C, the other in the 7th exon, the T4986C (Val/Ala), on plasma levels of renin and aldosterone, blood pressure, and arterial stiffness in subjects with essential hypertension. Subjects of European origin (n = 216) were examined during a 1-day hospitalization. Treatment, if any, was interrupted for at least 21 days before. Arterial stiffness was evaluated by measuring pulse wave velocity. Renin and aldosterone levels were evaluated by using a radioimmunoassay. The two polymorphisms were in complete linkage disequilibrium, as suggested by the presence of only three haplotypes in this population (T-344T4986, T-344C4986, and C-344T4986). The mean age and blood pressure values were similar in the different genotypes. Presence of the -344C allele was associated with elevated levels of plasma aldosterone: 90 +/- 8 pg/mL for TT (n = 67), 110 +/- 6 pg/mL for TC (n = 107), and 129 +/- 10 pg/mL for CC (n = 42) (test of codominant effect, P < .002 after adjustment for age and 24-h Na+ urine excretion). Pulse wave velocity was also increased in the -344C allele carriers: 11.3 +/- 0.4 m/sec, 12.7 +/- 0.3 m/sec, 12.0 +/- 0.5 m/sec in the TT, TC, and CC genotypes, respectively. No association was found between the T4986C polymorphism and the studied variables. In patients with essential hypertension, a variant on the promoter region of the aldosterone synthase gene is associated with significant differences in plasma aldosterone levels and arterial stiffness. These differences are not associated with variations in blood pressure levels.

Gene polymorphisms of the renin-angiotensin system in relation to hypertension and parental history of myocardial infarction and stroke: the PEGASE study. Projet d'Etude des Gènes de l'Hypertension Artérielle Sévère à modérée Essentielle

OBJECTIVE

To investigate a possible involvement of polymorphisms of the renin-angiotensin system in predisposition to moderate and severe hypertension and their relationship to parental histories of myocardial infarction and stroke.

METHODS

Hypertensive cases (453 men, 326 women) were patients followed up by general practitioners for established hypertension. Inclusion criteria were an age of onset of hypertension < or = 60 years and a diastolic blood pressure > or = 105 mmHg without antihypertensive medication or > or = 100 mmHg under treatment. Normotensive controls were selected from population-based samples (362 men) and during a preventative medicine visit (170 women). Polymorphisms of the angiotensinogen gene (AGT M235T and T174M), the angiotensin I converting enzyme gene (ACE I/D), and the angiotensin II type 1 receptor gene (AGT1R A1166C) were investigated.

RESULTS

The AGTT235 allele prevalence was higher among male hypertensive cases than it was among controls (0.46 versus 0.40, P = 0.01) and a similar trend was observed with female cases whose hypertension had been diagnosed before they were aged 45 years (0.44 versus 0.38, P = 0.20). The AGT1R C1166 allele prevalence was higher among female hypertensives than it was among controls (0.30 versus 0.23, P = 0.03) but no such difference was observed for men. The AGT T174M and ACE I/D polymorphisms were not associated with hypertension. Hypertensive patients reporting a parental history of myocardial infarction before age 60 years had a higher prevalence of the ACE D allele than did those without such a parental history (0.68 versus 0.56, P = 0.01). The ACE D allele prevalence was also greater among patients reporting a parental history of stroke incidence before age 65 years (0.66 versus 0.57, P = 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

These results support the hypothesis that the AGT gene plays a role in predisposition to hypertension and that the ACE gene plays a role in predisposition to acute ischemic events.

The Gln/Arg polymorphism of human paraoxonase (PON 192) is not related to myocardial infarction in the ECTIM Study

Paraoxonase is a high-density-lipoprotein associated enzyme capable of hydrolyzing lipid peroxides, which has been suggested to contribute to atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease (CHD). We studied the Gln/Arg polymorphism affecting codon 192 of human paraoxonase (PON 192) to determine whether this polymorphism, which is associated with serum paraoxonase (PON) activity, represents a risk factor for myocardial infarction (MI). The PON 192 polymorphism was analysed in 642 male patients with myocardial infarction and 701 age-matched controls participating in the ECTIM Study (Etude Cas-Témoins de l'Infarctus du Myocarde). The frequency of the Gln allele was 0.69 in cases and 0.70 in controls (ns). The frequency of the PON 192/Arg allele in 405 MI patients who underwent coronary angiography was 0.295, 0.323 and 0.331, respectively in those with 1, 2 or 3 stenosed arteries (stenosis > 50%) (ns). The mean levels of several plasma lipids, lipoproteins and apolipoproteins were compared between the 3 PON genotypes and no difference was observed. The PON 192 polymorphism was unrelated to MI, the severity of coronary atherosclerosis and to plasma levels of several lipid variables.

Shuttling of integrated vectors from mammalian cells to E. coli is mediated by head-to-tail multimeric inserts

With the aim of producing nonviral shuttle vectors for mammalian cells, we have constructed mouse mitochondrial DNA derivatives comprising the xanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase gene as a selectable marker. Complete or subcomplete mitochondrial genomes were inserted into the plasmid pBB3 and transferred into hepatoma cells in order to generate, in vivo, new recombinant molecules. A second- and a third-generation vector, p12.2b and p delta respectively, were thus isolated for their ability to shuttle from mammalian cells to recA+ E. coli. Transfection of rodent fibroblasts and hepatoma cells showed that, contrary to our expectations, p12.2b and p delta are not self-replicating episomes; their shuttling from mammalian cells to recA+ E. coli is mediated by tandem integrated copies. The relevant property of p12.2b and p delta is a ubiquitous propensity to form head-to-tail multimeric structures when they integrate into mammalian host chromosomes. This ability is missing in pBB3 and appears only following the insertion of various mitochondrial or nuclear DNA fragments into the plasmid. These data are discussed in terms of homologous recombination and shuttling of integrated vectors.

Two modules from the hypersuppressive rho- mitochondrial DNA are required for plasmid replication in yeast

In the yeast hypersuppressive (HS) rho- mutants most of the mitochondrial genome is deleted, but the remainder containing one of the three rep sequences is amplified. One of these sequences, rep2, and its flanking regions have been previously cloned and reported to promote autonomous plasmid replication in yeast. The present study suggests that the Ars activity associated with this HS rho- mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) fragment is due to the presence in cis of at least two modules: (i) the 11-bp consensus sequence 5'-ATAAACTATAAAAT-3', common to several ars sequences, and (ii) a palindromic sequence of the mitochondrial replicator. Proper spacing between the two modules, which varies from about 100 to 200 bp, is required for the Ars+ activity.

Amino acid change associated with the major polymorphic Hinc II site of Oriental and Caucasian mitochondrial DNAs

The mitochondrial DNAs (mtDNAs) from 116 Oriental and Caucasian blood samples were analyzed for their Hinc II restriction endonuclease cleavage patterns using Southern analysis and 32P human mtDNA probes. Seven distinct patterns were found, all of which could be interrelated by single nucleotide changes. The predominant pattern (mtHinc II-2) was found in 97% of the Caucasians and 73% of the Orientals. This mtDNA morph had one more Hinc II site than did the second most common morph (mtHinc II-1), which was found only in 20% of the Orientals. Three additional patterns were in a single Oriental sample, a fourth in a single Caucasian sample, and a fifth in one member of each population. The polymorphic site that differentiated mtHinc II-1 and mtHinc II-2 was cloned and sequenced. A single nucleotide change was found that created an Hinc II site and changed the amino acid sequence of the URF5 gene. Comparison of these sequences with those of other primates [15] revealed that the Asian mtHinc II-1 and mtHinc II-4 mtDNAs were identical in this region with those of chimpanzees and orangutans. These results suggest that the Asian mtHinc II-1 mtDNA may have been ancestral to other human mtDNAs.

Different nucleotide changes in the large rRNA gene of the mitochondrial DNA confer chloramphenicol resistance on two human cell lines

The nucleotide sequence of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in the region coding for the 3' end of the large rRNA has been determined for two human cell lines bearing independent cytoplasmic chloramphenicol-resistant (CAP-r) mutations. Comparison of the sequences of these two phenotypically different CAP-r mutants with their CAP-sensitive (CAP-s) parental cell lines has revealed a single base change for each in a region which is highly conserved among species. One CAP-r mutation is associated with an A to G transition on the coding strand while the second contains a G to T transversion 52 nucleotides away. Comparable sequence changes in this region had previously been found for mouse and yeast cell mitochondrial CAP-r mutants. Thus, changes in the large rRNA gene eliminate the inhibition of the ribosome by CAP and different nucleotide changes may result in variations in the drug-r phenotype.

Ethnic variation in Hpa 1 endonuclease cleavage patterns of human mitochondrial DNA

The mtDNAs of 235 individuals from five ethnic groups were analyzed for restriction site variation by digestion with restriction endonuclease Hpa I, Southern transfer, and hybridization with 32P-labeled human mtDNA. Six different cleavage patterns (morphs) were found, all of which could be related to each other by single nucleotide substitutions. Differences were found in the frequency of these morphs among the populations. The largest difference observed was in the frequency of the morph most common in Caucasians and Orientals compared to the frequency of that found in Africans. This difference apparently originated by the sequence change G-T-C-A-A-C to G-T-T-A-A-C. This alteration permitted recognition by Hpa I but did not alter the amino acid sequence. Two other observed differences were due to separate substitutions occurring in the ribosomal RNA genes. Comparison with primate data shows that the morph with two fragments, found in 12.5% of Oriental and 4% of Bantu samples, might be the ancestral type common to all hominoids. These two conserved sites were localized in tRNA genes in the anticodon loop. Assuming that the two-fragment morph is ancestral, this finding is consistent with previous data suggesting that Asia is genetically central to the radiations that are thought to have given rise to the human ethnic groups.

Mitochondrial DNA of chloramphenicol-resistant mouse cells contains a single nucleotide change in the region encoding the 3' end of the large ribosomal RNA

The complete DNA sequence of the rRNA genes of mouse L cell mtDNA provides a basis for the examination of the nucleotide sequence of this region in a mutant mouse cell line that is resistant to chloramphenicol, a known inhibitor of mitochondrial protein synthesis. Resistance to chloramphenicol (CAPr) is conferred by a cytoplasmic determinant that is linked to mtDNA restriction endonuclease site polymorphisms. We have determined the sequence of a 212-nucleotide region of mtDNA from a CAPr mouse cell line that encodes a portion of the 1582-nucleotide large rRNA. This sequence is located 107-318 nucleotides from the 5' end of the heavy strand coding sequence, which corresponds to the 3' end of the rRNA. There is a single nucleotide difference in the large rRNA gene from CAPr cells, an A-to-G transition 243 nucleotides from the 5' end of the coding sequence. This single transition is located within a region of 10 nucleotides tht is otherwise completely homologous to human and yeast mitochondrial large rRNAs and Escherichia coli 23S rRNA and is positioned immediately adjacent to a single nucleotide transversion known to occur in a yeast CAPr mutant. This characterization of a mammalian mitochondrial mutant at the nucleotide level directly demonstrates that a mutant phenotype may result from a single mtDNA nucleotide change in an animal cell.

Maternal inheritance of human mitochondrial DNA

Human mitochondrial DNA was obtained from peripheral blood platelets donated by the members of several independent families. The samples were screened for nucleotide sequence polymorphisms between individuals within these families. In each family in which we were able to detect a distinctly different restriction endonuclease cleavage pattern between the parents, the progeny exhibited the maternal cleavage pattern. Informative polymorphisms were detected for Hae II (PuGCGCPy) in a three-generation family composed of 33 members, for HincII (GTPyPuAC) in a two-generation family composed of four members, and for Hae III(GGCC) in a two-generation family composed of four members. The Hae II polymorphism was analyzed through all three generations in both the maternal and paternal lines. The results of this study demonstrate that human mitochondrial DNA is maternally inherited. The techniques described for using peripheral blood platelets as a source of human mitochondrial DNA represent a convenient way to obtain data on mitochondrial DNA variation in both individuals and populations.

Replicator regions of the yeast mitochondrial DNA responsible for suppressiveness

Hypersuppressiveness is a heritable property of some rho- mutants (called HS) that, in crosses to rho+, give rise to about 100% rho- cells. The mtDNAs of all HS rho- mutants reveal a common organization: they all share a homologous region of about 300 base pairs (called rep) and the fragments retained are always short (ca. 1% of the wild-type genome) and tandemly repeated. Using one HS rho- mutant as an example, we show that, after crosses with rho+ strains, the mitochondrial genome of the progeny is indistinguishable from that of the HS parent. This suggests that HS mtDNA molecules have a decisive selective advantage for replication during the transient heteroplasmic stage that follows zygote formation, the rep regions playing a role in the control of replication initiation of the mtDNA molecules. The complete nucleotide sequence of one HS rho- mutant and its localization in the oli1-rib3 segment of the rho+ mitochondrial genome are presented. Comparison of the nucleotide sequences of the rep regions of two different HS rho- mutants reveals that several rep sequences must exist in the wild-type genome, probably as a result of duplications of an originally unique ancestor.

Stable yeast transformation with chimeric plasmids using a 2 micron-circular DNA-less strain as a recipient

By using two chimeric plasmids containing yeast URA3 gene as a selection marker and 2 micron yeast DNA linked to the bacterial plasmid pCR1, a yeast strain devoid of any 2 micron DNA sequence was transformed. Recovery in E. coli of plasmids from yeast transformants showed that the 2 micron-less strain was able to maintain the chimeric plasmids as autonomous replicons, with very infrequent plasmid recombination. Hybridization experiments gave no evidence for integration of the URA3 DNA sequence in the chromosomal DNA. The transformed clones showed a high stability of the ura+ character during vegetative multiplication, even in the absence of selective pressure. The specific activity of orotidine 5' monophosphate decarboxylase (coded by the URA3 gene) was 5 to 10 fold higher than in the wild type. These features should offer new possibilities for cloning with yeast.

High frequency of yeast transformation by plasmids carrying part or entire 2-micron yeast plasmid

By using two chimeric plasmids containing yeast ura3 gene and 2-micron yeast DNA linked to the bacterial plasmid pCR1, yeast transformation of a high frequency has been achieved. The first plasmid is such that the 2-micron DNA part, in which the ura3 gene is incorporated, can be removed in one step and thus the 2-micron-ura3 sequence can be considered as a "transposable" block. In contrast, the second one bears the entire 2-micron plasmid and the ura3 gene is inserted in the bacterial plasmid part. As shown through hybridization experiments and genetic studies, the ura3 gene was maintained as a cytoplasmic element. Plasmids recovered from the yeast transformants were used to transform Escherichia coli. Their analysis by EcoRI showed that in many cases the vector had recombined with the endogenous 2-micron DNA of the recipient strain. The specific activity of orotidine 5'-monophosphate decarboxylase (coded by ura3) in yeast transformants was 10- to 30-fold higher than in the wild type.

Detection of specific DNA sequences in yeast by colony hybridization

A procedure is described for the detection of specific DNA sequences in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This method allows a rapid screening of a large number of yeast colonies. The yeast cells of each colony, grown on nitrocellulose filters, are converted, in situ, to protoplasts by snail enzyme, and are then lysed and their DNAs are denatured and fixed on the filter. The presence of the specific DNA sequence is detected directly on the filter by hybridization with a radioactive cRNA. We have used successfully this technique to detect the presence or the absence of specific mt DNA sequences in p+, p- and p0 strains, and to detect the presence or the absence of the 2 mum DNA sequences in different strains.