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Johnson CO, Boon-Dooley AS, DeCleene NK, Henny KF, Blacker BF, Anderson JA, Afshin A, Aravkin A, Cunningham MW, Dieleman JL, Feldman RG, Gakidou E, Mokdad AH, Naghavi M, Spencer CN, Whisnant JL, York HW, Zende RR, Zheng P, Murray CJL, Roth GA. Life Expectancy for White, Black, and Hispanic Race/Ethnicity in U.S. States: Trends and Disparities, 1990 to 2019. Ann Intern Med 2022; 175:1057-1064. [PMID: 35759765 PMCID: PMC10519623 DOI: 10.7326/m21-3956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Life expectancy (LE) differences within and between states by race/ethnicity have not been examined. OBJECTIVE To estimate LE for selected race/ethnicity groups in states from 1990 to 2019. DESIGN Cross-sectional time-series analysis. SETTING United States. PARTICIPANTS Deidentified death records and Census data were used to construct regression models with smoothed time series of mortality from 1990 to 2019. MEASUREMENTS LE at birth, by sex and year, for subgroups of people reporting Hispanic, non-Hispanic Black, or non-Hispanic White race/ethnicity. RESULTS Disparities in LE across states were 8.0 years for females and 12.2 years for males in 1990 and 7.9 years for females and 7.8 years for males in 2019. When race/ethnicity groups were accounted for, disparities across states were 20.7 years for females and 24.5 years for males in 1990, decreasing to 18.5 years for females and 23.7 years for males in 2019. Disparities across states increased within each race/ethnicity group between 1990 and 2019, with the largest increase for non-Hispanic White males and the smallest for Hispanic females. The disparity between race/ethnicity groups within states decreased for most of the 23 states with estimates for all 3 groups but increased for females in 7 states and males in 5 states. LIMITATION Because of small sample size, LE was not estimated for 37 of 153 state-race/ethnicity groups. CONCLUSION Disparity in LE across states was greater when race/ethnicity groups were considered. Disparities across all state-race/ethnicity groups in general have decreased over the past 3 decades. Within each race/ethnicity group, disparities across states have increased. Although racial/ethnic disparities decreased in most of the 23 states for which LE was estimated for all 3 groups, they increased for females in 7 states and males in 5 states. PRIMARY FUNDING SOURCE National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine O Johnson
- Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington (C.O.J., A.S.B., N.K.D., K.F.H., B.F.B., J.A.A., M.W.C., R.G.F., C.N.S., J.L.W., H.W.Y., R.R.Z.)
| | - Alexandra S Boon-Dooley
- Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington (C.O.J., A.S.B., N.K.D., K.F.H., B.F.B., J.A.A., M.W.C., R.G.F., C.N.S., J.L.W., H.W.Y., R.R.Z.)
| | - Nicole K DeCleene
- Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington (C.O.J., A.S.B., N.K.D., K.F.H., B.F.B., J.A.A., M.W.C., R.G.F., C.N.S., J.L.W., H.W.Y., R.R.Z.)
| | - Kiana F Henny
- Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington (C.O.J., A.S.B., N.K.D., K.F.H., B.F.B., J.A.A., M.W.C., R.G.F., C.N.S., J.L.W., H.W.Y., R.R.Z.)
| | - Brigette F Blacker
- Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington (C.O.J., A.S.B., N.K.D., K.F.H., B.F.B., J.A.A., M.W.C., R.G.F., C.N.S., J.L.W., H.W.Y., R.R.Z.)
| | - Jason A Anderson
- Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington (C.O.J., A.S.B., N.K.D., K.F.H., B.F.B., J.A.A., M.W.C., R.G.F., C.N.S., J.L.W., H.W.Y., R.R.Z.)
| | - Ashkan Afshin
- Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation and Department of Health Metrics Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington (A.Afshin, A.Aravkin, J.L.D., E.G., A.H.M., M.N., P.Z., C.J.L.M.)
| | - Aleksandr Aravkin
- Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation and Department of Health Metrics Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington (A.Afshin, A.Aravkin, J.L.D., E.G., A.H.M., M.N., P.Z., C.J.L.M.)
| | - Matthew W Cunningham
- Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington (C.O.J., A.S.B., N.K.D., K.F.H., B.F.B., J.A.A., M.W.C., R.G.F., C.N.S., J.L.W., H.W.Y., R.R.Z.)
| | - Joseph L Dieleman
- Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation and Department of Health Metrics Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington (A.Afshin, A.Aravkin, J.L.D., E.G., A.H.M., M.N., P.Z., C.J.L.M.)
| | - Rachel G Feldman
- Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington (C.O.J., A.S.B., N.K.D., K.F.H., B.F.B., J.A.A., M.W.C., R.G.F., C.N.S., J.L.W., H.W.Y., R.R.Z.)
| | - Emmanuela Gakidou
- Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation and Department of Health Metrics Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington (A.Afshin, A.Aravkin, J.L.D., E.G., A.H.M., M.N., P.Z., C.J.L.M.)
| | - Ali H Mokdad
- Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation and Department of Health Metrics Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington (A.Afshin, A.Aravkin, J.L.D., E.G., A.H.M., M.N., P.Z., C.J.L.M.)
| | - Mohsen Naghavi
- Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation and Department of Health Metrics Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington (A.Afshin, A.Aravkin, J.L.D., E.G., A.H.M., M.N., P.Z., C.J.L.M.)
| | - Cory N Spencer
- Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington (C.O.J., A.S.B., N.K.D., K.F.H., B.F.B., J.A.A., M.W.C., R.G.F., C.N.S., J.L.W., H.W.Y., R.R.Z.)
| | - Joanna L Whisnant
- Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington (C.O.J., A.S.B., N.K.D., K.F.H., B.F.B., J.A.A., M.W.C., R.G.F., C.N.S., J.L.W., H.W.Y., R.R.Z.)
| | - Hunter Wade York
- Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington (C.O.J., A.S.B., N.K.D., K.F.H., B.F.B., J.A.A., M.W.C., R.G.F., C.N.S., J.L.W., H.W.Y., R.R.Z.)
| | - Rahul R Zende
- Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington (C.O.J., A.S.B., N.K.D., K.F.H., B.F.B., J.A.A., M.W.C., R.G.F., C.N.S., J.L.W., H.W.Y., R.R.Z.)
| | - Peng Zheng
- Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation and Department of Health Metrics Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington (A.Afshin, A.Aravkin, J.L.D., E.G., A.H.M., M.N., P.Z., C.J.L.M.)
| | - Christopher J L Murray
- Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation and Department of Health Metrics Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington (A.Afshin, A.Aravkin, J.L.D., E.G., A.H.M., M.N., P.Z., C.J.L.M.)
| | - Gregory A Roth
- Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, Department of Health Metrics Sciences, and Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington (G.A.R.)
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Balaj M, York HW, Sripada K, Besnier E, Vonen HD, Aravkin A, Friedman J, Griswold M, Jensen MR, Mohammad T, Mullany EC, Solhaug S, Sorensen R, Stonkute D, Tallaksen A, Whisnant J, Zheng P, Gakidou E, Eikemo TA. Parental education and inequalities in child mortality: a global systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 2021; 398:608-620. [PMID: 34119000 PMCID: PMC8363948 DOI: 10.1016/s0140-6736(21)00534-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Revised: 01/31/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The educational attainment of parents, particularly mothers, has been associated with lower levels of child mortality, yet there is no consensus on the magnitude of this relationship globally. We aimed to estimate the total reductions in under-5 mortality that are associated with increased maternal and paternal education, during distinct age intervals. METHODS This study is a comprehensive global systematic review and meta-analysis of all existing studies of the effects of parental education on neonatal, infant, and under-5 child mortality, combined with primary analyses of Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) data. The literature search of seven databases (CINAHL, Embase, MEDLINE, PsycINFO, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science) was done between Jan 23 and Feb 8, 2019, and updated on Jan 7, 2021, with no language or publication date restrictions. Teams of independent reviewers assessed each record for its inclusion of individual-level data on parental education and child mortality and excluded articles on the basis of study design and availability of relevant statistics. Full-text screening was done in 15 languages. Data extracted from these studies were combined with primary microdata from the DHS for meta-analyses relating maternal or paternal education with mortality at six age intervals: 0-27 days, 1-11 months, 1-4 years, 0-4 years, 0-11 months, and 1 month to 4 years. Novel mixed-effects meta-regression models were implemented to address heterogeneity in referent and exposure measures among the studies and to adjust for study-level covariates (wealth or income, partner's years of schooling, and sex of the child). This study was registered with PROSPERO (CRD42020141731). FINDINGS The systematic review returned 5339 unique records, yielding 186 included studies after exclusions. DHS data were compiled from 114 unique surveys, capturing 3 112 474 livebirths. Data extracted from the systematic review were synthesized together with primary DHS data, for meta-analysis on a total of 300 studies from 92 countries. Both increased maternal and paternal education showed a dose-response relationship linked to reduced under-5 mortality, with maternal education emerging as a stronger predictor. We observed a reduction in under-5 mortality of 31·0% (95% CI 29·0-32·6) for children born to mothers with 12 years of education (ie, completed secondary education) and 17·3% (15·0-18·8) for children born to fathers with 12 years of education, compared with those born to a parent with no education. We also showed that a single additional year of schooling was, on average, associated with a reduction in under-5 mortality of 3·04% (2·82-3·23) for maternal education and 1·57% (1·35-1·72) for paternal education. The association between higher parental education and lower child mortality was significant for both parents at all ages studied and was largest after the first month of life. The meta-analysis framework incorporated uncertainty associated with each individual effect size into the model fitting process, in an effort to decrease the risk of bias introduced by study design and quality. INTERPRETATION To our knowledge, this study is the first effort to systematically quantify the transgenerational importance of education for child survival at the global level. The results showed that lower maternal and paternal education are both risk factors for child mortality, even after controlling for other markers of family socioeconomic status. This study provides robust evidence for universal quality education as a mechanism to achieve the Sustainable Development Goal target 3.2 of reducing neonatal and child mortality. FUNDING Research Council of Norway, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, and Rockefeller Foundation-Boston University Commission on Social Determinants, Data, and Decision Making (3-D Commission).
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirza Balaj
- Centre for Global Health Inequalities Research, Department of Sociology and Political Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Hunter Wade York
- Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA; Department of Sociology and Office of Population Research, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - Kam Sripada
- Centre for Global Health Inequalities Research, Department of Sociology and Political Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Elodie Besnier
- Centre for Global Health Inequalities Research, Department of Sociology and Political Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Hanne Dahl Vonen
- Centre for Global Health Inequalities Research, Department of Sociology and Political Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Aleksandr Aravkin
- Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA; Department of Applied Mathematics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA; Department of Health Metrics Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Joseph Friedman
- Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA; Center for Social Medicine and Humanities, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | | | - Magnus Rom Jensen
- Library Section for Humanities, Education and Social Sciences, University Library, Norwegian University of Science & Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Talal Mohammad
- Centre for Global Health Inequalities Research, Department of Sociology and Political Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Erin C Mullany
- Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Solvor Solhaug
- Library Section for Humanities, Education and Social Sciences, University Library, Norwegian University of Science & Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Reed Sorensen
- Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA; Department of Health Metrics Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Donata Stonkute
- Centre for Global Health Inequalities Research, Department of Sociology and Political Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Andreas Tallaksen
- Department of Health Promotion, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Bergen, Norway
| | - Joanna Whisnant
- Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Peng Zheng
- Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA; Department of Health Metrics Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Emmanuela Gakidou
- Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA; Department of Health Metrics Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.
| | - Terje Andreas Eikemo
- Centre for Global Health Inequalities Research, Department of Sociology and Political Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway.
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