Fatty Acid and Amino Acid Profiles of Seven Edible Insects: Focus on Lipid Class Composition and Protein Conversion Factors

This study is based on the fatty acid and amino acid profiles of seven edible insect species: Acheta domesticus, Alphitobius diaperinus, Blaptica dubia, Galleria mellonella, Locusta migratoria, Tenebrio molitor, and Zophobas morio. The aim of the present study is to provide new data on the fatty acid distributions among lipid classes as well as the species-specific protein conversion factor (Kp) of a wide range of insects in order to further improve the nutritional characterisation of insects as food. Oleic acid was the predominant fatty acid in all insects except for A. domesticus, in which a significantly higher percentage of linoleic acid was found. The majority of the lipids were neutral lipids. A significant amount of α-linolenic acid in the phospholipid fraction of L. migratoria was shown, while in T. molitor, phospholipids were the only fraction in which a measurable amount of docosahexaenoic acid was found. Overall, in most insects, the phospholipid fraction had the highest polyunsaturated fatty acid content compared to the other classes, which may be protective in terms of auto-oxidative stability. Kp values in the range of 4.17 to 6.43 were obtained. Within the nutritional quality indices, all insects showed healthy fatty acids and high-quality amino acid profiles.

Structure and physical stability of plant-based food gel systems: Impact of protein (mung bean, pea, potato, soybean) and fat (coconut, sunflower)

Despite their popularity, plant-based food gel systems (GS) sometimes have suboptimal texture compared to animal-based products. Therefore, 4 commercial plant proteins (from mung bean, pea, potato and soybean) and 2 commercial plant fats (sunflower oil and coconut fat) in 2 contents (7.5 wt% and 17.5 wt%) were evaluated towards their contribution to structure and physical stability a lean (LGS, no fat) and an emulsified GS (EGS). Generally, protein source had a larger effect on structure and physical stability than fat source and content. Unheated, GS with soybean protein showed most structure and highest physical stability. Heated till 94 °C, the structure of GS increased drastically, but EGS showed less structure than LGS, attributed to low solid fat contents (SFC), hence low rigidity, of the incorporated oil droplets at 94 °C. Cooled till 5 °C all GS showed an additional increase in structure, for GS with mung bean and pea protein accompanied with an increase in physical stability. Overall, EGS with sunflower oil showed less structure and lower stability than EGS with coconut fat, likely due to their different SFC. At 5 °C, Peak force of GS with potato protein was highest. Across protein sources, EGS displayed a higher Peak force with coconut fat than with sunflower oil, again likely due to different SFC, hence, rigidity of the oil droplets. Physical stability of GS did not vary significantly between protein sources, fat sources nor fat contents, after a freeze-thaw cycle, nor during prolonged cold storage.

Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction of Applewood Polyphenols at Lab and Pilot Scales

This study focused on the extraction of polyphenols from applewood using ultrasonic-assisted extraction (UAE). First, the influence of solvent composition and mass-volume (m:v) ratio on the extraction yield was studied at a lab scale (200 mL). Overall, a ratio of 1:33 (m:v) resulted in a higher yield of polyphenols. Furthermore, both a higher yield of polyphenols and higher antioxidant capacity were detected in the extracts produced in the presence of a 30 v/v % ethanol mixture compared to pure water; a further increase in ethanol did not improve the extraction yield. Second, under the optimal conditions (30 v/v % ethanol-water; 1:33 and 1:20 (m:v)), the UAE technique was applied at a pilot scale (100 L). At 1:33 (m:v), the polyphenol yield was lower at the pilot scale compared to the lab scale; by contrast, at 1:20 (m:v), production at the pilot scale resulted in a higher yield compared to the lab scale. To identify and quantify individual polyphenols, HPLC-PDA analyses were performed. Phloridzin appears to be the major identified compound. Finally, the UAE process was compared to a conventional solid-liquid extraction technique, showing that a significantly higher yield could be obtained with UAE.

Challenge tests reveal limited outgrowth of proteolytic Clostridium botulinum during the production of nitrate- and nitrite-free fermented sausages

Nitrate and nitrite salts perform a versatile role in fermented meats, including the inhibition of food pathogens (in particular proteolytic group I Clostridium botulinum). Despite the increasing interest in clean-label products, little is known about the behaviour of this pathogen in response to the removal of chemical preservatives from fermented meat formulations. Therefore, challenge tests with a cocktail of nontoxigenic group I C. botulinum strains were performed to produce nitrate/nitrite-free fermented sausages under different acidification conditions and starter culture formulations, including the use of an anticlostridial Mammaliicoccus sciuri strain. Results showed limited outgrowth of C. botulinum, even in the absence of acidification. The anticlostridial starter culture did not lead to an additional inhibitory effect. The selective plating procedure adopted within this study proofed robust to follow germination and growth of C. botulinum, inhibiting common fermentative meat microbiota. The challenge tests constitute a suitable tool to assess the behaviour of this food pathogen within fermented meats upon nitrate- and nitrite omission.

Comparing the aromatic profile of seven unheated edible insect species

Insects and insect-based products have gained increasing interest as human food because of their many technological, nutritional and environmental advantages, but they are still rejected by many Western consumers. Analytical knowledge of flavour compounds could contribute to enhancing product attractiveness to consumers. Therefore, the goal of this study was to examine the volatile compound profiles of 7 unheated insects: Zophobas morio (ZM), Tenebrio molitor (TM), Locusta migratoria (LM), Galleria mellonella (GM), Blaptica dubia (BD), Alphitobius diaperinus (ALD) and Acheta domesticus (ACD). A total of 67 compounds were identified. Carboxylic acids were predominant in ALD, BD, GM, TM and ZM, while ketones were the major family in ACD and linear hydrocarbons in LM. ZM contained the highest number of unpleasant odour compounds, including indole, also present in BD and GM, which is characterised by a low detection threshold.

Comparison of the Technological Application Potential of Functional Ingredients for the Meat Industry Based upon a Novel Fast Screening Tool

The application potential of functional ingredients for the meat industry is often assessed through different measuring tools, thereby making comparisons difficult. The aim of this study was to create valuable information about the performance of functional ingredients based upon standardized and comparable data gathered through a newly developed screening tool. Therefore, 25 ingredients, selected from different techno-functional classes, were characterized at 2 different dosages by means of the screening methodology. The tool itself consisted of a lean meat model and fatty liver-based system, representative of the finely minced and/or emulsified charcuterie market. A total of 23 different parameters were measured through both model systems, providing information concerning water and fat binding capacity, emulsification, and texture and structure formation. Through cluster analysis, the ingredients were assigned to groups, each with their own specific properties. The screening tool provided good descriptive and distinctive power concerning ingredient functionalities and offers the industry a clear overview of their application characteristics.

Influence of aging time, temperature and relative humidity on the sensory quality of dry-aged Belgian Blue beef

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of aging period (0, 3, 6 or 9 weeks), aging temperature (2 versus 6 °C at 75% relative humidity, experiment 1) and relative humidity (70 versus 90% at 2 °C, experiment 2) on the sensory traits, oxidative stability and proteolysis of Belgian Blue beef. For each experiment, eight loins (M. longissimus thoracis et lumborum) from four animals (left and right side) were assigned to one of the two treatments (n = 4). Results showed no further tenderization after three weeks of aging, whereas metmyoglobin formation and lipid oxidation increased until nine weeks of aging (P < 0.05). During the nine weeks of aging, atypical flavor, odor and flavor intensity was affected (P < 0.05). This was accompanied by an increase of small peptides and other nitrogenous compounds. Aging temperature and relative humidity had only a very limited effect on the quality traits.

Phosphate Elimination in Emulsified Meat Products: Impact of Protein-Based Ingredients on Quality Characteristics

The addition of phosphates to meat products improves the emulsifying and gelling properties of meat proteins, in turn enhancing overall product quality. The current market trend towards additive-free products and the health issues related to phosphate challenge the industry to develop phosphate-free meat products. The aim of this study was to evaluate the potential of seven protein-based ingredients (pea, blood plasma, gelatin, soy, whey, egg, and potato) to remediate quality losses of emulsified meat products (cooked sausages) upon phosphate elimination. First, the intrinsic gelling and emulsifying characteristics of the proteins were assessed. Next, the proteins were added to phosphate-free sausages, of which quality characteristics during production (viscoelastic behavior and emulsion stability) and of the final products (texture, cooking loss, and pH) were screened. Blood plasma and soy were superior in phosphate-free cooked sausages, as no significant differences in hardness, cooking yield, or stability were found compared to phosphate-containing sausages. Egg and pea also improved the previously mentioned quality characteristics of phosphate-free sausages, although to a lesser extent. These insights could not entirely be explained based on the intrinsic gelling and emulsifying capacity of the respective proteins. This indicated the importance of a well-defined standardized meat matrix to determine the potential of alternative proteins in meat products.

Gelation of a combination of insect and pork proteins as affected by heating temperature and insect:meat ratio

In order to better understand structure formation in hybrid meat products containing insects, viscoelastic properties, protein aggregation and surface hydrophobicity of extracted insect and meat proteins in different insect:meat nitrogen ratios (100:0, 75:25, 50:50, 25:75 and 0:100) at different heating temperatures (from 20 to 80 °C) were studied. During heating, meat proteins showed best gelling properties. This was probably associated with the formation of hydrophobic interactions, as was confirmed by the strong increase in surface hydrophobicity of the meat proteins upon heating. Insect proteins, on the other hand, formed a considerable amount of additional structure during cooling, resulting in gels with high gel strength, although their gel stability was low. As for the mixtures of insect and meat proteins, they showed lower final gel strengths compared to the pure insect and meat protein samples. Furthermore, proteins with molecular weights of 230 and 16 kDa, that aggregated in the pure samples, did not aggregate in the mixtures. Although the mechanism of the latter effect remains to be elucidated, it probably explains the lower gel strength observed in the protein mixtures.

Valorisation of tainted boar meat in patties, frankfurter sausages and cooked ham by means of targeted dilution, cooking and smoking

Because of the need to abolish the castration of piglets without anaesthesia/analgesia, the pig industry is searching for a mode of action for the valorisation of meat with boar taint, an off-odour in entire male pigs. Carcasses with boar taint were selected by means of sensory and chemical analysis, after which patties with different levels of tainted boar meat were produced, as well as cooked ham and Frankfurter sausages using different smoke condensates and cooking temperatures. For these products orthonasal and retronasal boar taint odour were assessed by a trained expert panel. The results offer guidance regarding dilution of tainted meat (with <400 µg/kg androstenone if skatole is low or <200 µg/kg androstenone in concurrence with ≥37 µg/kg skatole) and the potential application of smoke condensates (e.g., Rudinsmoke C for sausages and Smokez LFBN for ham) as promising boar taint masking strategies.

Sensorial and Nutritional Aspects of Cultured Meat in Comparison to Traditional Meat: Much to Be Inferred

Cultured meat aspires to be biologically equivalent to traditional meat. If cultured meat is to be consumed, sensorial (texture, color, flavor) and nutritional characteristics are of utmost importance. This paper compares cultured meat to traditional meat from a tissue engineering and meat technological point of view, focusing on several molecular, technological and sensorial attributes. We outline the challenges and future steps to be taken for cultured meat to mimic traditional meat as closely as possible.

Impact of raw ham quality and tumbling time on the technological properties of polyphosphate-free cooked ham

The effect of tumbling time (5 h30, 19 h and 26 h) and raw ham quality (superior, inferior or mixed quality) on the quality of polyphosphate-free cooked ham was investigated. The water holding capacity and total yield of the polyphosphate-free tumbled hams were dependent on both tumbling time and ham quality. Higher values of both parameters were obtained with an increase in tumbling time from 5 h30 to 19 h and with superior hams. The exudate after 19 h and 26 h tumbling showed a higher gel forming ability compared to 5 h30, which, in case of polyphosphate-free cooked hams produced with mixed and inferior meat quality, resulted in a better sliceability (less holes). However, tumbling time did not affect hardness, which was only influenced by ham quality, resulting in a softer polyphosphate-free cooked ham produced with inferior ham quality compared to the other quality classes.

The effect of temperature on structure formation in three insect batters

Since insects are a promising alternative protein source, the application potential of three insect larvae (Alphitobius diaperinus, Tenebrio molitor and Zophobas morio) for food purposes was explored. To this end, the effect of isothermal heating at 5 different temperatures (70 °C-90 °C) on structure formation in insect batters was studied rheologically. Meat batters (with the same protein content as insect batters), isothermally heated at 70 °C, were also studied for comparison. Cryo-SEM imaging was used to visualize the microstructure of raw and heated insect batters. These images showed that a network was formed in the heated batters, as well as in the raw batters. However, no clear effect of temperature or insect larva on the microstructure was observed. Rheologically, both the heating temperature applied and the insect larva used were shown to have a significant effect on the viscoelastic properties of the insect batters. Generally, batters containing Z. morio larvae showed both higher storage moduli (G') and longer linear viscoelastic regions (LVRs) compared to the other insect larvae, indicating that these larvae had the best structure forming capacities. Furthermore, both G' and the length of the LVR increased with increasing isothermal heating temperature, indicating more structure formation and structure stability in insect batters heated at higher temperatures. Compared to the meat batters, however, the insect larvae were shown to have inferior structure forming capacities. Even at the highest heating temperature (90 °C) the viscoelastic properties of the insect batters only approached those of meat batters heated at 70 °C. Therefore, it was concluded that higher heating temperatures may need to be employed in insect-based food products compared to meat products in order to obtain sufficient structure formation and the desired textural properties.

Effect of Meat Type, Animal Fatty Acid Composition, and Isothermal Temperature on the Viscoelastic Properties of Meat Batters

The aim of this research was to simultaneously study the effect of meat type (chicken breast and leg meat), animal fatty acid composition (selected pork backfats having a low and high degree of saturation, respectively), and isothermal temperature (50, 60, 70, and 80 °C) on the viscoelastic properties of meat batters during and after application of different time-temperature profiles. Gelation of meat proteins contributed most to the viscoelastic properties of meat batters during heating, whereas crystallization of the lipids especially contributed to the viscoelastic properties during the cooling phase. Although the meat type had little effect on the final viscoelastic properties of the meat product, the fatty acid composition had a clear impact on the melting peak area (and therefore solid fat content) of lard, and subsequently on the final viscoelastic properties of meat batters prepared with different types of fats, with higher G' (elastic modulus) values for the most saturated animal fat. The crystallization of the fat clearly transcended the effect of the meat type with regard to G' at the end of the process. With increasing (isothermal) temperature, G' of meat batters increased. Therefore, it could be concluded that the structural properties of heated meat batters mainly depend on the heating temperature and the fatty acid composition, rather than the meat type.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION

Quality characteristics of cooked sausages depend on multiple factors such as the meat and fat type, non-meat ingredients and processing conditions. From this study it could be concluded that the structural properties of cooked sausage batters mainly depend on the heating temperature and the fatty acid composition, rather than the meat type. Because the fatty acid composition of different animal fats differs widely, these results may be a concern for all manufactures of cooked sausages products with regard to the product structure and final texture, keeping in mind that rendered fat was used in this study, which is not common in sausage making.

Phosphate Reduction in Emulsified Meat Products: Impact of Phosphate Type and Dosage on Quality Characteristics

Phosphate reduction is of important industrial relevance in the manufacturing of emulsified meat products because it may give rise to a healthier product. The effect of seven different phosphate types was tested on the physicochemical and quality characteristics to select the most promising phosphate type for further cooked sausage manufacturing. Next, phosphate mass fraction was gradually reduced. Tetrasodium di- or pyrophosphate (TSPP) and sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) increased pH, reduced structural properties, resulted in the highest emulsion stability, lowest cooking loss and had little effect on hardness. Based on the viscoelastic properties, a minimum mass fraction of 0.06% TSPP was sufficient to obtain an acceptable quality product. Rheology proved to be a very useful tool to evaluate the quality of meat products, as it gives insight in the structure of the meat product and especially the functional properties of meat proteins. Based on the obtained results, it can be concluded that the current amount of phosphate added to emulsified meat products can be significantly reduced with minimal loss of product quality.

Formation of naturally occurring pigments during the production of nitrite-free dry fermented sausages

This study investigates the potential of producing red coloured dry fermented sausages without the addition of nitrite and/or nitrate. Therefore, the formation of zinc protoporphyrin IX (Zn(II)PPIX) as naturally occurring pigment, and the interrelated protoporphyrin IX (PPIX) and heme content were evaluated during nitrite-free dry fermented sausage production at different pH conditions. Zn(II)PPIX was only able to form in dry fermented sausages at pH conditions higher than approximately 4.9. Additionally, the presence of Zn(II)PPIX increased drastically at the later phase of the production process (up to day 177), confirming that in addition to pH, time is also a crucial factor for its formation. Similarly, PPIX also accumulated in the meat products at increased pH conditions and production times. In contrast, a breakdown of heme was observed. This breakdown was more gradual and independent of pH and showed no clear relationship with the formed amounts of Zn(II)PPIX and PPIX. A statistically significant relationship between Zn(II)PPIX formation and product redness was established.

Determination of selected protoporphyrins in parma ham with use of 5,10,15,20-tetra(4-hydroxyphenyl)porphyrin as a surrogate standard in the recovery study

A high-performance liquid chromatographic method for the determination of hemin, protoporphyrin IX (PPIX), and zinc(II)protoporphyrin IX (Zn(II)PPIX) in Parma ham was developed. The detection was done by means of a universal DAD-detector, whereby quantification of the three naturally occurring protoporphyrins was carried out at lambda = 414 nm, i.e., very close to the respective maxima of their Soret bands. The extraction thereof from the meat matrix was done by a mixture of acetone and chloroacetic acid (100 mL + 0.2 g). Usage of 5,10,15,20-tetra(4-hydroxyphenyl)porphyrin (THPP) as a surrogate standard and its detection fixed at lambda = 444 nm, allowed to obtain accurate (ca. 96%) recovery results. Established concentrations of hemin, Zn(II)PPIX, and PPIX in the Parma ham samples were 15.97, 19.96 and 1.52 µg g(-1), respectively.

The occurrence of N-nitrosamines, residual nitrite and biogenic amines in commercial dry fermented sausages and evaluation of their occasional relation

Regarding food borne intoxications, the accumulation of biogenic amines must be avoided in all kinds of food products. Moreover, biogenic amines can function as precursors for the formation of carcinogenic N-nitrosamines when nitrite is present. To estimate the food safety of the dry fermented sausages available on the Belgian market, a screening of the residual sodium nitrite and nitrate contents, biogenic amines and volatile N-nitrosamine concentrations was performed on 101 samples. The median concentrations of residual NaNO2 and NaNO3 were each individually lower than 20mg/kg. In general, the biogenic amine accumulation remained low at the end of shelf life. Only in one product the amounts of cadaverine and putrescine reached intoxicating levels. Concerning the occurrence of N-nitrosamines, only N-nitrosopiperidine and N-nitrosomorpholine were detected in a high number of samples (resp. 22% and 28%). No correlation between the presence of N-nitrosamines and the biogenic amines content was observed. Although the N-nitrosamines could not been linked to specific product categories, the occurrence of N-nitrosopiperidine could probably be attributed to the use of pepper.

Influence of organic matter generated by Chlorella vulgaris on five different modes of flocculation

Microalgae excrete relatively large amounts of algal organic matter (AOM) that may interfere with flocculation. The influence of AOM on flocculation of Chlorella vulgaris was studied using five different flocculation methods: aluminum sulfate, chitosan, cationic starch, pH-induced flocculation and electro-coagulation-flocculation (ECF). The presence of AOM was found to inhibit flocculation for all flocculation methods resulting in an increase of dosage demand. For pH-induced flocculation, the dosage required to achieve 85% flocculation increased only 2-fold when AOM was present, while for chitosan, this dosage increased 9-fold. For alum, ECF and cationic starch flocculation, the dosage increased 5-6-fold. Interference by AOM is an important parameter to consider in the assessment of flocculation-based harvesting of microalgae.

Flocculation of Chlorella vulgaris induced by high pH: role of magnesium and calcium and practical implications

Microalgae hold great potential as a feedstock for biofuels or bulk protein or treatment of wastewater or flue gas. Realising these applications will require the development of a cost-efficient harvesting technology. Here, we explore the potential of flocculation induced by high pH for harvesting Chlorella vulgaris. Our results demonstrate that flocculation can be induced by increasing medium pH to 11. Although both calcium and magnesium precipitated when pH was increased, only magnesium (≥0.15 mM) proved to be essential to induce flocculation. The costs of four different bases (sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide and sodium carbonate) were calculated and evaluated and the use of lime appeared to be the most cost-efficient. Flocculation induced by high pH is therefore a potentially useful method to preconcentrate freshwater microalgal biomass during harvesting.