The distribution and characterisation of microplastics in air, surface water and sediment within a major river system

Rivers are key pathways for the transfer of microplastics (MP) to marine environments. However, there are considerable uncertainties about the amount of microplastics transported by rivers to the ocean; this results in inaccuracies in our understanding of microplastic quantity and transport by freshwater systems. Additionally, it has been suggested that rivers may represent long-term sinks, with microplastics accumulating in sediment due to their high density or other biological, chemical, and physical factors. The atmosphere is also an important pathway by which airborne microplastics may enter aquatic habitats. Here, we compare for first time microplastics type and concentration in these key environmental mediums (air, water and sediment) along a major river (Ganges), from sea to source to understand 1) the abundance, 2) the spatial distribution, and 3) characteristics. Mean microplastic abundance settling from the atmosphere was 41.12 MP m2 day-1; while concentrations in sediment were 57.00 MP kg-1 and in water were 0.05 MP L-1. Across all sites and environmental mediums, rayon (synthetically altered cellulose) was the dominant polymer (54-82 %), followed by acrylic (6-23 %) and polyester (9-17 %). Fibres were the dominant shape (95-99 %) and blue was the most common colour (48-79 %). Across water and sediment environmental mediums, the number of microplastics per sample increased from the source of the Ganges to the sea. Additionally, higher population densities correlated with increased microplastic abundance for air and water samples. We suggest that clothing is likely to be the prominent source of microplastics to the river system, influenced by atmospheric deposition, wastewater and direct input (e.g. handwashing of clothes in the Ganges), especially in high density population areas. However, we suggest that subsequent microplastic release to the marine environment is strongly influenced by polymer type and shape, with a large proportion of denser microplastics settling in sediment prior to the river discharging to the ocean.

Examining the release of synthetic microfibres to the environment via two major pathways: Atmospheric deposition and treated wastewater effluent

Research on the discharge of synthetic microfibres to aquatic environments has typically focused on laundering, where fibres can be discharged via wastewater effluent. However emerging research suggests that microfibres generated during the wear of textiles in normal use could present a major, additional, pathway for microfibre pollution to the environment. This study aimed to quantify and compare the quantities of microfibre entering the marine environment via both these pathways; wastewater discharge and atmospheric deposition. Areas of high and low population density were also evaluated. Samples were collected in and around two British cities (Bristol and Plymouth) both of which are located on tidal waters. Fibres originating from the atmosphere were deposited at an average rate of 81.6 fibres m² d^-1 across urban and rural areas. Treated wastewater effluent contained on an average 0.03 synthetic fibres L^-1. Based on our results we predict ~20,000-500,000 microfibres could be discharged per day from the Wastewater Treatment Plants studied. When the two pathways were compared. Atmospheric deposition of synthetic microfibres appeared the dominant pathway, releasing fibres at a rate several orders of magnitude greater than via treated wastewater effluent. Potential options to reduce the release of microfibres to the environment are discussed and we conclude that intervention at the textile design stage presents the most effective approach. In order to guide policy intervention to inform the Plastics Treaty UNEA 5.2, future work should focus on understanding which permutations of textile design have the greatest influence fibre shedding, during both everyday use and laundering.

The fundamental links between climate change and marine plastic pollution

Plastic pollution and climate change have commonly been treated as two separate issues and sometimes are even seen as competing. Here we present an alternative view that these two issues are fundamentally linked. Primarily, we explore how plastic contributes to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the beginning to the end of its life cycle. Secondly, we show that more extreme weather and floods associated with climate change, will exacerbate the spread of plastic in the natural environment. Finally, both issues occur throughout the marine environment, and we show that ecosystems and species can be particularly vulnerable to both, such as coral reefs that face disease spread through plastic pollution and climate-driven increased global bleaching events. A Web of Science search showed climate change and plastic pollution studies in the ocean are often siloed, with only 0.4% of the articles examining both stressors simultaneously. We also identified a lack of regional and industry-specific life cycle analysis data for comparisons in relative GHG contributions by materials and products. Overall, we suggest that rather than debate over the relative importance of climate change or marine plastic pollution, a more productive course would be to determine the linking factors between the two and identify solutions to combat both crises.

Quantifying the release of tyre wear particles to the marine environment via multiple pathways

Desk-based studies have suggested tyre wear particles contribute a substantial portion of microplastic emissions to the environment, yet few empirical studies report finding tyre wear. Samples were collected from three pathways to the marine environment: atmospheric deposition, treated wastewater effluent, and untreated surface runoff. Pyrolysis coupled to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry was used to detect benzothiazole, a molecular marker for tyres. Benzothiazole was detected in each pathway, emitting tyre wear in addition to other sources of microplastics. Release via surface water drainage was the principle pathway in the regions examined. Laboratory tests indicated larger particles likely settle close to their entry points, whereas smaller particles have potential for longer-range transport and dispersal. The previous lack of reports are likely a consequence of inadequate methods of detection, rather than a low environmental presence. Further work is required to establish distribution, transport potential, and potential impacts once within the marine environment.

The abundance and characteristics of microplastics in surface water in the transboundary Ganges River

Microplastics (plastic < 5 mm in size) are now known to contaminate riverine systems but understanding about how their concentrations vary spatially and temporally is limited. This information is critical to help identify key sources and pathways of microplastic and develop management interventions. This study provides the first investigation of microplastic abundance, characteristics and temporal variation along the Ganges river; one of the most important catchments of South Asia. From 10 sites along a 2575 km stretch of the river, 20 water samples (3600 L in total) were filtered (60 samples each from pre- and post-monsoon season). Overall, 140 microplastic particles were identified, with higher concentrations found in the pre-monsoon (71.6%) than in post-monsoon (61.6%) samples. The majority of microplastics were fibres (91%) and the remaining were fragments (9%). We estimate that the Ganges, with the combined flows of the Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers (GBM), could release up to 1-3 billion (10⁹) microplastics into the Bay of Bengal (north-eastern portion of the Indian Ocean) every day. This research provides the first step in understanding microplastic contamination in the Ganges and its contribution to the oceanic microplastic load.

Plastic pollution in aquatic systems in Bangladesh: A review of current knowledge

Rivers play a crucial role in transporting land-based plastic waste to the ocean, with the Ganges reported as the second largest contributing river of plastic pollution globally. To better quantify global plastic pollution transport and effectively reduce the sources and risks imposed, a clear understanding of the origin, transport, fate, and effects of riverine plastic debris is important. In this review paper, we discuss the current state of knowledge of plastic pollution in aquatic systems in Bangladesh and evaluate existing research gaps. Bangladesh has been recognized as an internationally significant nation in the plastic pollution crisis, but this paper identifies a major disconnect in knowledge, understanding and capacity to understand and address this critical environmental and public health issue. Here, we review all available scientific publications on plastic pollution in the freshwater and marine environment in Bangladesh and identify key research themes. A total of 24 studies relevant to plastic pollution were published from 2006 to 2019, of which 18 were selected for this study under the authors' criteria. Nine focused on plastic pollution in the marine environment, eight focused on plastic waste generation and management and only one focused on the freshwater environment. We compared our findings with three other countries in the Global South with comparable per capita gross domestic product (GDP) and mismanaged waste, namely Cambodia, Kenya, and Tanzania, revealing similar knowledge gaps. This lack of research demonstrates a need for further work to monitor and model riverine plastic transport and examine the implications for aquatic organisms. This will facilitate the formulation of national management strategies aimed at addressing plastic pollution.

Deposition of PFAS 'forever chemicals' on Mt. Everest

Mt. Everest, one of the most coveted climbing mountains on earth, also contains the highest altitude chemical contamination on land. For the first time, meltwater and snow samples from Mt. Everest's Khumbu Glacier were analyzed for "forever chemicals" per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). Our research team utilized solid-phase extraction (SPE) and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) to identify pollutants sampled from Everest Base Camp, Camp 1, Camp 2, and Everest Balcony. From the 14 PFAS compounds tested for, we found perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), and perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA) in Mt. Everest snow and meltwater. The highest concentrations found were 26.14 ng/L and 10.34 ng/L PFOS at Base Camp and Camp 2, respectively. However, PFAS species were seen within 1-2 orders of magnitude in all sampling sites with detection, potentially suggesting a widespread presence on the mountain. Our samples are the highest altitude PFAS samples ever retrieved and indicate the need for further sampling both on Mt. Everest and in the below-glacier watershed.

Riverine plastic pollution from fisheries: Insights from the Ganges River system

Abandoned, lost or otherwise discarded fishing gear represents a substantial proportion of global marine plastic pollution and can cause significant environmental and socio-economic impacts. Yet little is known about its presence in, and implications for, freshwater ecosystems or its downstream contribution to plastic pollution in the ocean. This study documents fishing gear-related debris in one of the world's largest plastic pollution contributing river catchments, the Ganges. Riverbank surveys conducted along the length of the river, from the coast in Bangladesh to the Himalaya in India, show that derelict fishing gear density increases with proximity to the sea. Fishing nets were the main gear type by volume and all samples examined for polymer type were plastic. Illegal gear types and restricted net mesh sizes were also recorded. Socio-economic surveys of fisher communities explored the behavioural drivers of plastic waste input from one of the world's largest inland fisheries and revealed short gear lifespans and high turnover rates, lack of appropriate end-of-life gear disposal methods and ineffective fisheries regulations. A biodiversity threat assessment identified the air-breathing aquatic vertebrate species most at risk of entanglement in, and impacts from, derelict fishing gear; namely species of threatened freshwater turtle and otter, and the endangered Ganges river dolphin. This research demonstrates a need for targeted and practical interventions to limit the input of fisheries-related plastic pollution to this major river system and ultimately, the global ocean. The approach used in this study could be replicated to examine the inputs, socio-economic drivers and ecological impacts of this previously uncharacterised but important source of plastic pollution in other major rivers worldwide.

The efficiency of devices intended to reduce microfibre release during clothes washing

The washing of synthetic clothes is considered to be a substantial source of microplastic to the environment. Therefore, various devices have been designed to capture microfibres released from clothing during the washing cycle. In this study, we compared 6 different devices which varied from prototypes to commercially available products. These were designed to either be placed inside the drum during the washing cycle or fitted externally to filter the effluent wastewater discharge. The aim of this study was to examine the efficacy of these devices at mitigating microfibre release from clothing during washing or at capturing any microfibres released in the wastewater. When compared to the amount of microfibres entering the wastewater without any device (control), the XFiltra filter was the most successful device. This device captured microfibres reducing their release to wastewater by around 78%. The Guppyfriend bag was the second most successful device, reducing microfibre release to wastewater by around 54%; it appeared to mainly work by reducing microfibre shedding from the clothing during the washing cycle. Despite some potentially promising results it is important to recognise that fibres are also released when garments are worn in everyday use. Researchers and industry need to continue to collaborate to better understand the best intervention points to reduce microfibre shedding, by considering both product design and fibre capture.

Environmental Deterioration of Biodegradable, Oxo-biodegradable, Compostable, and Conventional Plastic Carrier Bags in the Sea, Soil, and Open-Air Over a 3-Year Period

There is clear evidence that discarded single-use carrier bags are accumulating in the environment. As a result, various plastic formulations have been developed which state they deteriorate faster and/or have fewer impacts on the environment because their persistence is shorter. This study examined biodegradable, oxo-biodegradable, compostable, and high-density polyethylene (i.e., a conventional plastic carrier bag) materials over a 3 year period. These materials were exposed in three natural environments; open-air, buried in soil, and submersed in seawater, as well as in controlled laboratory conditions. In the marine environment, the compostable bag completely disappeared within 3 months. However, the same compostable bag type was still present in the soil environment after 27 months but could no longer hold weight without tearing. After 9 months exposure in the open-air, all bag materials had disintegrated into fragments. Collectively, our results showed that none of the bags could be relied upon to show any substantial deterioration over a 3 year period in all of the environments. It is therefore not clear that the oxo-biodegradable or biodegradable formulations provide sufficiently advanced rates of deterioration to be advantageous in the context of reducing marine litter, compared to conventional bags.

Release of synthetic microplastic plastic fibres from domestic washing machines: Effects of fabric type and washing conditions

Washing clothes made from synthetic materials has been identified as a potentially important source of microscopic fibres to the environment. This study examined the release of fibres from polyester, polyester-cotton blend and acrylic fabrics. These fabrics were laundered under various conditions of temperature, detergent and conditioner. Fibres from waste effluent were examined and the mass, abundance and fibre size compared between treatments. Average fibre size ranged between 11.9 and 17.7μm in diameter, and 5.0 and 7.8mm in length. Polyester-cotton fabric consistently shed significantly fewer fibres than either polyester or acrylic. However, fibre release varied according to wash treatment with various complex interactions. We estimate over 700,000 fibres could be released from an average 6kg wash load of acrylic fabric. As fibres have been reported in effluent from sewage treatment plants, our data indicates fibres released by washing of clothing could be an important source of microplastics to aquatic habitats.

Characterisation, quantity and sorptive properties of microplastics extracted from cosmetics

Cosmetic products, such as facial scrubs, have been identified as potentially important primary sources of microplastics to the marine environment. This study characterises, quantifies and then investigates the sorptive properties of plastic microbeads that are used as exfoliants in cosmetics. Polyethylene microbeads were extracted from several products, and shown to have a wide size range (mean diameters between 164 and 327 μm). We estimated that between 4594 and 94,500 microbeads could be released in a single use. To examine the potential for microbeads to accumulate and transport chemicals they were exposed to a binary mixture of (3)H-phenanthrene and (14)C-DDT in seawater. The potential for transport of sorbed chemicals by microbeads was broadly similar to that of polythene (PE) particles used in previous sorption studies. In conclusion, cosmetic exfoliants are a potentially important, yet preventable source of microplastic contamination in the marine environment.

Characterisation, quantity and sorptive properties of microplastics extracted from cosmetics

Cosmetic products, such as facial scrubs, have been identified as potentially important primary sources of microplastics to the marine environment. This study characterises, quantifies and then investigates the sorptive properties of plastic microbeads that are used as exfoliants in cosmetics. Polyethylene microbeads were extracted from several products, and shown to have a wide size range (mean diameters between 164 and 327 μm). We estimated that between 4594 and 94,500 microbeads could be released in a single use. To examine the potential for microbeads to accumulate and transport chemicals they were exposed to a binary mixture of (3)H-phenanthrene and (14)C-DDT in seawater. The potential for transport of sorbed chemicals by microbeads was broadly similar to that of polythene (PE) particles used in previous sorption studies. In conclusion, cosmetic exfoliants are a potentially important, yet preventable source of microplastic contamination in the marine environment.