Androgen receptor dampens tissue factor expression via nuclear factor-κB and early growth response protein 1

Essentials Androgen deprivation increases the rate of venous thromboembolism in prostate cancer patients. We characterized androgen receptor-mediated tissue factor regulation in prostate epithelial cells. Androgen receptor is dampening tissue factor expression in prostate epithelial cells. Androgen deprivation could enhance tissue factor expression and raise venous thromboembolism rates.

SUMMARY

Background Prostate cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer death in men. Advanced prostate cancer is usually treated by androgen deprivation therapy (ADT), which is aimed at reducing circulating testosterone levels to reduce cancer growth. There is growing evidence that ADT can increase the rate of venous thromboembolism (VTE) in prostate cancer patients. The tissue factor (TF) gene is one of the most important mediators of coagulation and VTE, but, so far, there are limited data on androgen receptor (AR)-mediated TF gene expression. Objectives To characterize AR-mediated TF regulation in vitro and in vivo. Methods We used the androgen-dependent prostate cancer cell lines LNCaP and MyC-CaP to test whether TF expression is regulated by AR. Furthermore, we cloned the TF gene promoter into a luciferase reporter vector to identify the transcription factor-binding sites that mediate TF regulation downstream of AR. Finally, we used castration experiments in mice to characterize AR-mediated TF regulation in vivo. Results TF is directly regulated by AR. In LNCaP cells, nuclear factor-κB signaling and EGR1 mediate TF expression. By using castration experiments in mice, we could detect upregulation of TF and early growth response protein 1 mRNA and protein expression in prostate epithelial cells. Conclusion AR is crucial for dampening TF expression, which could be important for increased TF expression and TF-positive microvesicle release in androgen-deprived prostate cancer patients.

A novel method for automated assessment of megakaryocyte differentiation and proplatelet formation

Transfusion of platelet concentrates represents an important treatment for various bleeding complications. However, the short half-life and frequent contaminations with bacteria restrict the availability of platelet concentrates and raise a clear demand for platelets generated ex vivo. Therefore, in vitro platelet generation from megakaryocytes represents an important research topic. A vital step for this process represents accurate analysis of thrombopoiesis and proplatelet formation, which is usually conducted manually. We aimed to develop a novel method for automated classification and analysis of proplatelet-forming megakaryocytes in vitro. After fluorescent labelling of surface and nucleus, MKs were automatically categorized and analysed with a novel pipeline of the open source software CellProfiler. Our new workflow is able to detect and quantify four subtypes of megakaryocytes undergoing thrombopoiesis: proplatelet-forming, spreading, pseudopodia-forming and terminally differentiated, anucleated megakaryocytes. Furthermore, we were able to characterize the inhibitory effect of dasatinib on thrombopoiesis in more detail. Our new workflow enabled rapid, unbiased, quantitative and qualitative in-depth analysis of proplatelet formation based on morphological characteristics. Clinicians and basic researchers alike will benefit from this novel technique that allows reliable and unbiased quantification of proplatelet formation. It thereby provides a valuable tool for the development of methods to generate platelets ex vivo and to detect effects of drugs on megakaryocyte differentiation.

Myeloid but not epithelial tissue factor exerts protective anti-inflammatory effects in acid aspiration-induced acute lung injury

Essentials Tissue factor (TF) represents a central link between hemostasis and inflammation. We studied the roles of myeloid and airway epithelial TF in acid-caused acute lung injury (ALI). TF on myeloid cells displays a non-coagulatory role regulating the inflammatory response in ALI. Airway epithelial TF contributes to hemostatic functions, but is dispensable in ALI pathogenesis.

SUMMARY

Introduction Acute lung injury (ALI) is a life-threatening condition characterized by damaged alveolar-capillary structures and activation of inflammatory and hemostatic processes. Tissue factor (TF) represents a crucial link between inflammation and coagulation, as inflammatory mediators induce myeloid TF expression, and TF initiates extrinsic coagulation. Objective As pulmonary inflammation stimulates TF expression and TF modulates immune responses, we aimed to elucidate its impact on ALI. In particular, we wanted to distinguish the contributions of TF expressed on airway epithelial cells and TF expressed on myeloid cells. Methods Mice with different cell type-specific TF deficiency and wild-type littermates were intratracheally treated with hydrochloric acid, and leukocyte recruitment, cytokine levels, thrombin-antithrombin (TAT) complexes and pulmonary protein-rich infiltrates were analyzed. Results Our data demonstrate that a lack of epithelial TF did not influence acute responses, as bronchoalveolar neutrophil accumulation 8 h after ALI induction was unaltered. However, it led to mild, prolonged inflammation, as pulmonary leukocyte and erythrocyte numbers were still increased after 24 h, whereas those in wild-type mice had returned to basal levels. In contrast, myeloid TF was primarily involved in regulating the acute phase of ALI without affecting local coagulation, as indicated by increased bronchoalveolar neutrophil infiltration, pulmonary interleukin-6 levels, and edema formation, but equal TAT complex formation, 8 h after ALI induction. This augmented inflammatory response associated with myeloid TF deficiency was confirmed in vitro, as lipopolysaccharide-stimulated TF-deficient alveolar macrophages released increased levels of chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 1 and tumor necrosis factor-α as compared with wild-type macrophages. Conclusion We conclude that myeloid TF dampens inflammation in acid-induced ALI.

Myeloid PTEN deficiency impairs tumor-immune surveillance via immune-checkpoint inhibition

Tumor-host interaction is determined by constant immune surveillance, characterized by tumor infiltration of myeloid and lymphoid cells. A malfunctioning or diverted immune response promotes tumor growth and metastasis. Recent advances had been made, by treating of certain tumor types, such as melanoma, with T-cell checkpoint inhibitors. This highlights the importance of understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying the crosstalk between tumors and their environment, in particular myeloid and lymphoid cells. Our aim was to study the contribution of the myeloid PI3K/PTEN-signaling pathway in the regulation of tumor-immune surveillance in murine models of cancer. We made use of conditional PTEN-deficient mice, which exhibit sustained activation of the PI3K-signaling axis in a variety of myeloid cell subsets such as macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs). In colitis-associated colon cancer (CAC), mice deficient in myeloid PTEN showed a markedly higher tumor burden and decreased survival. We attributed this observation to the increased presence of immune-modulatory conventional CD8α(+) DCs in the spleen, whereas other relevant myeloid cell subsets were largely unaffected. Notably, we detected enhanced surface expression of PD-L1 and PD-L2 on these DCs. As a consequence, tumoricidal T-cell responses were hampered or redirected. Taken together, our findings indicated an unanticipated role for the PI3K/PTEN-signaling axis in the functional regulation of splenic antigen-presenting cells (APCs). Our data pointed at potential, indirect, tumoricidal effects of subclass-specific PI3K inhibitors, which are currently under clinical investigation for treatment of tumors, via myeloid cell activation.

Alpha-catulin, a Rho signalling component, can regulate NF-kappaB through binding to IKK-beta, and confers resistance to apoptosis

Rho GTPases regulate diverse cellular functions including adhesion, cytokinesis and motility, as well as the activity of the transcription factors NF-kappaB, serum response factor and C/EBP. alpha-Catulin, an alpha-catenin-related protein that shares structural similarities with cytoskeletal linker proteins, facilitates Rho signalling by serving as a scaffold for the Rho-specific guanine nucleotide exchange factor Lbc. We report here that alpha-catulin also interacts with a key component of the NF-kappaB signalling pathway, namely the IkappaB kinase (IKK)-beta. In co-immunoprecipitations, alpha-catulin can bind IKK-beta and Lbc. Ectopic expression of alpha-catulin augmented NF-kappaB activity, promoted cell migration and increased resistance to apoptosis, whereas knockdown experiments showed the opposite effects. Together, these features suggest that alpha-catulin has tumorigenic potential.

A highly conserved proapoptotic gene, IKIP, located next to the APAF1 gene locus, is regulated by p53

We describe here the identification and initial characterization of a novel human gene termed IKIP (I kappa B kinase interacting protein) that is located on chromosome 12 in close proximity to APAF1 (apoptotic protease-activating factor-1). IKIP and APAF1 share a common 488 bp promoter from which the two genes are transcribed in opposite directions. Three IKIP transcripts are generated by differential splicing and alternative exon usage that do not show significant homology to other genes in the databases. Similar to APAF1, expression of IKIP is enhanced by X-irradiation, and both genes are dependent on p53. Moreover, IKIP promotes apoptosis when transfected into endothelial cells. We conclude that IKIP is a novel p53 target gene with proapoptotic function.

Impact of oligomerization on the function of the human serotonin transporter

The formation of oligomeric structures has been proposed for a large number of membrane proteins, including G-protein-coupled receptors and ion channels. Biochemical studies employing gel filtration, cross-linking or co-immunoprecipitation techniques showed that the serotonin [5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)] transporter is also capable of forming oligomers. We investigated whether the human serotonin transporter (hSERT) can be visualized as an oligomer in the plasma membrane of intact cells. To test this working hypothesis, we generated fusion proteins of hSERT and spectral variants of green fluorescent protein [cyan and yellow fluorescent proteins (CFP and YFP, respectively)]. When expressed in HeLa or HEK-293 cells, the resulting fusion proteins (CFP-hSERT and YFP-hSERT) were inserted into the plasma membrane and were indistinguishable from wild-type hSERT on functional testing (5-HT uptake assays, inhibition of 5-HT uptake by blockers such as imipramine). Oligomers were visualized by fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) microscopy in living cells using complementary methods. Interestingly, oligomerization was not confined to hSERT; FRET was also observed between CFP-and YFP-labelled rat gamma-aminobutyric acid transporter. Gel filtration experiments showed that most of the protein was recovered as higher molecular weight complexes; almost no monomeric form was detected. This indicates that the homo-oligomeric form is the favoured state of hSERT in living cells. The formation of oligomers was not significantly affected by co-incubation with transporter substrates or blockers. Based on our observations, oligomer formation might not be essential for the physiological function of the transporter protein, the re-uptake of substrates. Furthermore, we conclude that constitutive oligomer formation might be a general property of Na(+)/Cl(-)-dependent neurotransmitter transporters.

Adenovirus-mediated expression of a mutant IkappaB kinase 2 inhibits the response of endothelial cells to inflammatory stimuli

In a variety of cell types, the transcription factor nuclear factor kappaB (NF-kappaB) functions as a mediator of stress and immune responses. In endothelial cells (ECs), it controls the expression of genes encoding, eg, cytokines, cell adhesion molecules, and procoagulatory proteins. This study investigates the effect of NF-kappaB suppression on several pathophysiologic functions of ECs, including inflammation, coagulation, and angiogenesis. A recombinant adenovirus was generated for expression of a dominant negative (dn) mutant of IkappaB kinase 2 (IKK2), a kinase that acts as an upstream activator of NF-kappaB. dnIKK2 inhibited NF-kappaB, resulting in strongly reduced nuclear translocation and DNA binding activity of the transcription factor and lack of expression of several proinflammatory markers, including E-selectin, intercellular adhesion molecule 1, vascular cell adhesion molecule 1, and interleukin-8. Concomitantly, inhibition of leukocyte binding to dnIKK2-expressing ECs could be demonstrated in a cell adhesion assay. Furthermore, expression of tissue factor as well as the ability to form capillary tubes in a matrigel assay was impaired in dnIKK2-expressing ECs. These data demonstrate that NF-kappaB is of central importance not only for the inflammatory response but also for a number of other EC functions. Therefore, this transcription factor as well as its upstream regulatory signaling molecules may represent favorable targets for therapeutic interference.

Oligomerization of the human serotonin transporter and of the rat GABA transporter 1 visualized by fluorescence resonance energy transfer microscopy in living cells

Recent biochemical studies indicate that the serotonin transporter can form oligomers. We investigated whether the human serotonin transporter (hSERT) can be visualized as an oligomer in the plasma membrane of intact cells. For this purpose, we generated fusion proteins of hSERT and spectral variants of the green fluorescent protein (cyan and yellow fluorescent proteins, CFP and YFP, respectively). When expressed in human embryonic kidney 293 cells, the resulting fusion proteins (CFP-hSERT and YFP-hSERT) were efficiently inserted into the plasma membrane and were functionally indistinguishable from wild-type hSERT. Oligomers were visualized by fluorescence resonance energy transfer microscopy in living cells using two complementary methods, i.e. ratio imaging and donor photobleaching. Interestingly, oligomerization was not confined to hSERT; fluorescence resonance energy transfer was also observed between CFP- and YFP-labeled rat gamma-aminobutyric acid transporter. The bulk of serotonin transporters was recovered as high molecular weight complexes upon gel filtration in detergent solution. In contrast, the monomers of CFP-hSERT and YFP-hSERT were essentially undetectable. This indicates that the homo-oligomeric form is the favored state of hSERT in living cells, which is not significantly affected by coincubation with transporter substrates or blockers. Based on our observations, we conclude that constitutive oligomer formation might be a general property of Na(+)/Cl(-)-dependent neurotransmitter transporters.

The transcription factor NF-kappa B and the regulation of vascular cell function

A variety of pathophysiological situations that affect cells of the vasculature, including endothelial and smooth muscle cells, leads to the expression of genes such as adhesion molecules and chemokines that are dependent on members of the nuclear factor (NF)-kappaB family of transcription factors. The corresponding gene products mediate important biological functions such as immune and inflammatory reactions, smooth muscle cell proliferation, and angiogenesis. The beneficial and usually transient NF-kappaB-dependent gene expression may be exaggerated in pathological situations and results in damage to the vessel wall and impaired vascular cell function. In this review, we will capitalize on the favorable and adverse roles of NF-kappaB in the context of vascular disease, eg, chronic and localized inflammation, arteriosclerosis, and neoangiogenesis.

Activation of NF-kappa B by XIAP, the X chromosome-linked inhibitor of apoptosis, in endothelial cells involves TAK1

Exposure of endothelial and many other cell types to tumor necrosis factor alpha generates both apoptotic and anti-apoptotic signals. The anti-apoptotic pathway leads to activation of the transcription factor NF-kappaB that regulates the expression of genes such as A20 or members of the IAP gene family that protect cells from tumor necrosis factor alpha-mediated apoptosis. In turn, some anti-apoptotic genes have been shown to modulate NF-kappaB activity. Here we demonstrate that XIAP, a NF-kappaB-dependent member of the IAP gene family, is a strong stimulator of NF-kappaB. Expression of XIAP leads to increased nuclear translocation of the p65 subunit of NF-kappaB via a novel signaling pathway that involves the mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase TAK1. We show that TAK1 physically interacts with NIK and with IKK2, and both XIAP or active TAK1 can stimulate IKK2 kinase activity. Thus, XIAP may be part of a system of regulatory loops that balance a cell's response to environmental stimuli.

Dynamics of NF kappa B and Ikappa Balpha studied with green fluorescent protein (GFP) fusion proteins. Investigation of GFP-p65 binding to DNa by fluorescence resonance energy transfer

We investigated the dynamics of nuclear transcription factor kappaB (NF-kappaB) by using fusion proteins of the p65 subunit with mutants of green fluorescent protein (GFP). GFP-NF-kappaB chimeras were functional both in vitro and in vivo, as demonstrated by electrophoretic mobility shift assays and reporter gene studies. GFP-p65 was regulated by IkappaBalpha similar to wild type p65 and associated with its inhibitor even if both proteins were linked to a GFP protein. This finding was also verified by fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) microscopy and studies showing mutual regulation of the intracellular localization of both GFP chimerae. Incubation of GFP-p65 with fluorescently labeled NF-kappaB-binding oligonucleotides also resulted in FRET. This effect was DNA sequence-specific and exhibited saturation characteristics. Application of stopped-flow fluorometry to measure the kinetics of FRET between GFP-p65 and oligonucleotides revealed a fast increase of acceptor fluorescence with a plateau after about 10 ms. The observed initial binding rate showed a temperature-dependent linear correlation with the oligonucleotide concentration. The association constant calculated according to pre-steady state kinetics was 3 x 10(6) m(-1), although equilibrium binding studies implied significantly higher values. This observation suggests that the binding process involves a rapid association with a rather high off-rate followed by a conformational change resulting in an increase of the association constant.

The NF-kappaB/Rel family of transcription factors in oncogenic transformation and apoptosis

Recent progress in the identification and functional analysis of protein kinases and adapter molecules that lead to activation of NF-kappaB family transcription factors has lead to a quite detailed understanding of one of the major signalling pathways that mediate a cell's response to environmental stress in a variety of host-defense situations. NF-kappaB is recognized as a key regulatory factor mediating the coordinate expression of genes which are part of the cellular machinery that functions to protect an organism against damage posed by physical, chemical or microbial noxae. In a wide variety of patho-physiological situations such as immune and inflammatory reactions, the expression of cytokines, interleukins and adhesion molecules in cells of the immune system including T and B cells, endothelial as well as phagocytic/antigen presenting cells is to a large extent regulated by NF-kappaB. Moreover, this transcription factor appears to play a central role in the regulation of apoptosis, an important cellular program that decides upon a cell's fate not only during embryonic development but also on its way from normal to the transformed phenotype. Thus, NF-kappaB has emerged also as an attractive target for therapeutic interference in a variety of pathological situations, including chronic inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, HIV infection and cancer.

Accumulation of sialic acid in endocytic compartments interferes with the formation of mature lysosomes. Impaired proteolytic processing of cathepsin B in fibroblasts of patients with lysosomal sialic acid storage disease

The impact of an altered endocytic environment on the biogenesis of lysosomes was studied in fibroblasts of patients suffering from sialic acid storage disease (SASD). This inherited disorder is characterized by the accumulation of acidic monosaccharides in lysosomal compartments and a concomitant decrease of their buoyant density. We demonstrate that C-terminal trimming of the lysosomal cysteine proteinase cathepsin B is inhibited in SASD fibroblasts. This late event in the biosynthesis of cathepsin B normally takes place in mature lysosomes, suggesting an impaired biogenesis of these organelles in SASD cells. When normal fibroblasts are loaded with sucrose, which inhibits transport from late endosomes to lysosomes, C-terminal cathepsin B processing is prevented to the same extent. Further characterization of the terminal endocytic compartments of SASD cells revealed properties usually associated with late endosomes/prelysosomes. In addition to a decreased buoyant density, SASD "lysosomes" show a reduced acidification capacity and appear smaller than their normal counterparts. We conclude that the accumulation of small non-diffusible compounds within endocytic compartments interferes with the formation of mature lysosomes and that the acidic environment of the latter organelles is a prerequisite for C-terminal processing of lysosomal hydrolases.

In vitro fusion of tissue-derived endosomes and lysosomes

We investigated the in vitro fusion of different endocytic compartments derived from perfused rat liver, where the cells are assumed to be in their physiological state. Specifically labelled early, late and transcytotic endosomes, as well as lysosomes were tested for their fusion properties. In addition to the expected ATP-dependent fusion between early endosomes, we observed fusion between early and late endosomes with similar efficiency, kinetics and cytosol dependence. Fusion between early endosomes and transcytotic vesicles could not be detected. Prolonged incubation of complementary labelled early endosomes under fusion-supporting conditions followed by Percoll gradient centrifugation revealed the occurrence of fusion product at a dense position, indicating fusion events between light and dense compartments. Incubation of membrane preparations containing avidin-labelled endosomes and biotin-dextran-loaded lysosomes resulted in the formation of avidin-biotin complexes, indicating that fusion between early and late endosomes is followed by fusion with lysosomes. This was verified by colocalization of fluorescently labelled endosomes and lysosomes, as assessed by laser scanning microscopy. Endosome fusion, as well as content mixing between endosomes and lysosomes, were dependent on temperature and ATP, and could be inhibited by N-ethylmaleimide (NEM). The NEM-sensitivity was localised on endosomes and in the cytosol, but not on lysosomes. These observations indicate that early and late endosomes of rat liver exhibit a high fusion competence in vitro, promoting not only homotypic, but also heterotypic fusion.

Nuclear factor (NF)-kappaB-regulated X-chromosome-linked iap gene expression protects endothelial cells from tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced apoptosis

By differential screening of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)- activated endothelial cells (ECs), we have identified a cDNA clone that turned out to be a member of the inhibitor of apoptosis (iap) gene family. iap genes function to protect cells from undergoing apoptotic death in response to a variety of stimuli. These iap genes, hiap1, hiap2, and xiap were found to be strongly upregulated upon treatment of ECs with the inflammatory cytokines TNF-alpha, interleukin 1beta, and LPS, reagents that lead to activation of the nuclear transcription factor kappaB (NF-kappaB). Indeed, overexpression of IkappaBalpha, an inhibitor of NF-kappaB, suppresses the induced expression of iap genes and sensitizes ECs to TNF-alpha-induced apoptosis. Ectopic expression of one member of the human iap genes, human X-chromosome-linked iap (xiap), using recombinant adenovirus overrules the IkappaBalpha effect and protects ECs from TNF-alpha- induced apoptosis. We conclude that xiap represents one of the NF-kappaB-regulated genes that counteracts the apoptotic signals caused by TNF-alpha and thereby prevents ECs from undergoing apoptosis during inflammation.

The acidic environment in endocytic compartments

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