Effects of dynamic matrix remodelling on en masse migration of fibroblasts on collagen matrices

Fibroblast migration plays a key role during various physiological and pathological processes. Although migration of individual fibroblasts has been well studied, migration in vivo often involves simultaneous locomotion of fibroblasts sited in close proximity, so-called 'en masse migration', during which intensive cell-cell interactions occur. This study aims to understand the effects of matrix mechanical environments on the cell-matrix and cell-cell interactions during en masse migration of fibroblasts on collagen matrices. Specifically, we hypothesized that a group of migrating cells can significantly deform the matrix, whose mechanical microenvironment dramatically changes compared with the undeformed state, and the alteration of the matrix microenvironment reciprocally affects cell migration. This hypothesis was tested by time-resolved measurements of cell and extracellular matrix movement during en masse migration on collagen hydrogels with varying concentrations. The results illustrated that a group of cells generates significant spatio-temporal deformation of the matrix before and during the migration. Cells on soft collagen hydrogels migrate along tortuous paths, but, as the matrix stiffness increases, cell migration patterns become aligned with each other and show coordinated migration paths. As cells migrate, the matrix is locally compressed, resulting in a locally stiffened and dense matrix across the collagen concentration range studied.

Role of intracellular poroelasticity on freezing-induced deformation of cells in engineered tissues

Freezing of biomaterials is important in a wide variety of biomedical applications, including cryopreservation and cryosurgeries. For the success of these applications to various biomaterials, biophysical mechanisms, which determine freezing-induced changes in cells and tissues, need to be well understood. Specifically, the significance of the intracellular mechanics during freezing is not well understood. Thus, we hypothesize that cells interact during freezing with the surroundings such as suspension media and the extracellular matrix (ECM) via two distinct but related mechanisms-water transport and cytoskeletal mechanics. The underlying rationale is that the cytoplasm of the cells has poroelastic nature, which can regulate both cellular water transport and cytoskeletal mechanics. A poroelasticity-based cell dehydration model is developed and confirmed to provide insight into the effects of the hydraulic conductivity and stiffness of the cytoplasm on the dehydration of cells in suspension during freezing. We further investigated the effect of the cytoskeletal structures on the cryoresponse of cells embedded in the ECM by measuring the spatio-temporal intracellular deformation with dermal equivalent as a model tissue. The freezing-induced change in cell, nucleus and cytoplasm volume was quantified, and the possible mechanism of the volumetric change was proposed. The results are discussed considering the hierarchical poroelasticity of biological tissues.

Preservation of tissue microstructure and functionality during freezing by modulation of cytoskeletal structure

Cryopreservation is one of the key enabling technologies for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, which can provide reliable long-term storage of engineered tissues (ETs) without losing their functionality. However, it is still extremely difficult to design and develop cryopreservation protocols guaranteeing the post-thaw tissue functionality. One of the major challenges in cryopreservation is associated with the difficulty of identifying effective and less toxic cryoprotective agents (CPAs) to guarantee the post-thaw tissue functionality. In this study, thus, a hypothesis was tested that the modulation of the cytoskeletal structure of cells embedded in the extracellular matrix (ECM) can mitigate the freezing-induced changes of the functionality and can reduce the amount of CPA necessary to preserve the functionality of ETs during cryopreservation. In order to test this hypothesis, we prepared dermal equivalents by seeding fibroblasts in type I collagen matrices resulting in three different cytoskeletal structures. These ETs were exposed to various freeze/thaw (F/T) conditions with and without CPAs. The freezing-induced cell-fluid-matrix interactions and subsequent functional properties of the ETs were assessed. The results showed that the cytoskeletal structure and the use of CPA were strongly correlated to the preservation of the post-thaw functional properties. As the cytoskeletal structure became stronger via stress fiber formation, the ET's functionality was preserved better. It also reduced the necessary CPA concentration to preserve the post-thaw functionality. However, if the extent of the freezing-induced cell-fluid-matrix interaction was too excessive, the cytoskeletal structure was completely destroyed and the beneficial effects became minimal.

Measurement of spatiotemporal intracellular deformation of cells adhered to collagen matrix during freezing of biomaterials

Preservation of structural integrity inside cells and at cell-extracellular matrix (ECM) interfaces is a key challenge during freezing of biomaterials. Since the post-thaw functionality of cells depends on the extent of change in the cytoskeletal structure caused by complex cell-ECM adhesion, spatiotemporal deformation inside the cell was measured using a newly developed microbead-mediated particle tracking deformetry (PTD) technique using fibroblast-seeded dermal equivalents as a model tissue. Fibronectin-coated 500 nm diameter microbeads were internalized in cells, and the microbead-labeled cells were used to prepare engineered tissue with type I collagen matrices. After a 24 h incubation the engineered tissues were directionally frozen, and the cells were imaged during the process. The microbeads were tracked, and spatiotemporal deformation inside the cells was computed from the tracking data using the PTD method. Effects of particle size on the deformation measurement method were tested, and it was found that microbeads represent cell deformation to acceptable accuracy. The results showed complex spatiotemporal deformation patterns in the cells. Large deformation in the cells and detachments of cells from the ECM were observed. At the cellular scale, variable directionality of the deformation was found in contrast to the one-dimensional deformation pattern observed at the tissue scale, as found from earlier studies. In summary, this method can quantify the spatiotemporal deformation in cells and can be correlated to the freezing-induced change in the structure of cytosplasm and of the cell-ECM interface. As a broader application, this method may be used to compute deformation of cells in the ECM environment for physiological processes, namely cell migration, stem cell differentiation, vasculogenesis, and cancer metastasis, which have relevance to quantify mechanotransduction.

Effects of freezing-induced cell-fluid-matrix interactions on the cells and extracellular matrix of engineered tissues

The two most significant challenges for successful cryopreservation of engineered tissues (ETs) are preserving tissue functionality and controlling highly tissue-type dependent preservation outcomes. In order to address these challenges, freezing-induced cell-fluid-matrix interactions should be understood, which determine the post-thaw cell viability and extracellular matrix (ECM) microstructure. However, the current understanding of this tissue-level biophysical interaction is still limited. In this study, freezing-induced cell-fluid-matrix interactions and their impact on the cells and ECM microstructure of ETs were investigated using dermal equivalents as a model ET. The dermal equivalents were constructed by seeding human dermal fibroblasts in type I collagen matrices with varying cell seeding density and collagen concentration. While these dermal equivalents underwent an identical freeze/thaw condition, their spatiotemporal deformation during freezing, post-thaw ECM microstructure, and cellular level cryoresponse were characterized. The results showed that the extent and characteristics of freezing-induced deformation were significantly different among the experimental groups, and the ETs with denser ECM microstructure experienced a larger deformation. The magnitude of the deformation was well correlated to the post-thaw ECM structure, suggesting that the freezing-induced deformation is a good indicator of post-thaw ECM structure. A significant difference in the extent of cellular injury was also noted among the experimental groups, and it depended on the extent of freezing-induced deformation of the ETs and the initial cytoskeleton organization. These results suggest that the cells have been subjected to mechanical insult due to the freezing-induced deformation as well as thermal insult. These findings provide insight on tissue-type dependent cryopreservation outcomes, and can help to design and modify cryopreservation protocols for new types of tissues from a pre-developed cryopreservation protocol.

Spatiotemporal measurement of freezing-induced deformation of engineered tissues

In order to cryopreserve functional engineered tissues (ETs), the microstructure of the extracellular matrix (ECM) should be maintained, as well as the cellular viability since the functionality is closely related to the ECM microstructure. Since the post-thaw ECM microstructure is determined by the deformation of ETs during cryopreservation, freezing-induced deformation of ETs was measured with a newly developed quantum dot (QD)-mediated cell image deformetry system using dermal equivalents as a model tissue. The dermal equivalents were constructed by seeding QD-labeled fibroblasts in type I collagen matrices. After 24 h incubation, the ETs were directionally frozen by exposing them to a spatial temperature gradient (from 4 degrees C to -20 degrees C over a distance of 6 mm). While being frozen, the ETs were consecutively imaged, and consecutive pairs of these images were two-dimensionally cross-correlated to determine the local deformation during freezing. The results showed that freezing induced the deformation of ET, and its magnitude varied with both time and location. The maximum local dilatation was 0.006 s(-1) and was always observed at the phase change interface. Due to this local expansion, the unfrozen region in front of the freezing interface experienced compression. This expansion-compression pattern was observed throughout the freezing process. In the unfrozen region, the deformation rate gradually decreased away from the freezing interface. After freezing/thawing, the ET experienced an approximately 28% decrease in thickness and 8% loss in weight. These results indicate that freezing-induced deformation caused the transport of interstitial fluid, and the interstitial fluid was extruded. In summary, the results suggest that complex cell-fluid-matrix interactions occur within ETs during freezing, and these interactions determine the post-thaw ECM microstructure and eventual post-thaw tissue functionality.

High-resolution broadband N2 coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy: comparison of measurements for conventional and modeless broadband dye lasers

We have performed high-resolution N2 coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy (CARS) measurements using a modeless dye laser (MDL) as the Stokes beam source to determine the effects of a reduction in mode noise on the accuracy and precision of the method. These results are compared with previous research that employed a conventional broadband dye laser (CBDL) as the Stokes beam source. A new spectral-fitting procedure was developed to avoid starting-point bias in the least-squares fitting results, which possibly had altered the previous measurements. Single-shot measurements of pressure were performed in a static-pressure vessel over the range of 0.1-4.0 atm to examine the pressure sensitivity of the technique. The precision of these measurements is a measure of the baseline noise level of the system, which sets the detection limit for flow-field pressure fluctuations. Centerline measurements of pressure and temperature in an underexpanded jet (Mj = 1.85) were also used to determine the performance of the technique in a compressible flow field. Our study represents the first known application, to our knowledge, of a MDL CARS system in a low-temperature, low-pressure supersonic environment. Improvements in accuracy for mean single-shot measurements and increased precision were found for pressure vessel conditions above 1.0 atm. For subatmospheric pressure vessel conditions (0.1-1.0 atm) and the underexpanded jet measurements, there was a decrease in accuracy and precision compared with the CBDL results. A comparison with the CBDL study is included, along with a discussion of the MDL system behavior.

Development of high-resolution n(2) coherent anti-stokes Raman scattering for measuring pressure, temperature, and density in high-speed gas flows

Mean and instantaneous measurements of pressure, temperature, and density have been acquired in an optically accessible gas cell and in the flow field of an underexpanded sonic jet by use of the high-resolution N(2) coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) technique. This nonintrusive method resolves the pressure- and temperature-sensitive rotational transitions of the nu = 0 ? 1 N(2) Q-branch to within Domega = 0.10 cm(-1). To extract thermodynamic information from the experimental spectra, theoretical spectra, generated by a N(2) spectral modeling program, are fit to the experimental spectra in a least-squares manner. In the gas cell, the CARS-measured pressures compare favorably with transducer-measured pressures. The precision and accuracy of the single-shot CARS pressure measurements increase at subatmospheric conditions. Along the centerline of the underexpanded jet, the agreement between the mean CARS P/T/rho measurements and similar quantities extracted from a Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes computational fluid dynamic simulation is generally excellent. This CARS technique is able to capture the low-pressure and low-temperature conditions of the M = 3.4 flow entering the Mach disk, as well as the subsonic conditions immediately downstream of this normal shock.

Quantitative dual-tracer planar laser-induced fluorescence measurements of molecular mixing

Simultaneous, planar laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) images of nitric oxide (NO) and acetone have been used to calculate instantaneous quantitative maps of molecularly mixed jet-fluid fraction in an axisymmetric shear layer. In this experiment, NO is seeded into high-purity nitrogen jet fluid and acetone is seeded into air coflow. On mixing at the molecular level, the NO LIF is strongly quenched by oxygen from the coflow, while the acetone signal is unaffected by the mixing process. The extent to which the jet fluid is mixed at the molecular level is determined on a pixel-by-pixel basis from the simultaneous NO and acetone planar LIF images. Jets at Reynolds numbers ranging from 1000 to 50 000 are investigated.