Role of the differentially spliced carboxyl terminus in thromboxane A2 receptor trafficking: identification of a distinct motif for tonic internalization

The thromboxane A(2) receptor (TP) is a G protein-coupled receptor that is expressed as two alternatively spliced isoforms, alpha (343 residues) and beta (407 residues) that share the first 328 residues. We have previously shown that TPbeta, but not TPalpha, undergoes agonist-induced internalization in a dynamin-, GRK-, and arrestin-dependent manner. In the present report, we demonstrate that TPbeta, but not TPalpha, also undergoes tonic internalization. Tonic internalization of TPbeta was temperature- and dynamin-dependent and was inhibited by sucrose and NH(4)Cl treatment but unaffected by wild-type or dominant-negative GRKs or arrestins. Truncation and site-directed mutagenesis revealed that a YX(3)phi motif (where X is any residue and phi is a bulky hydrophobic residue) found in the proximal portion of the carboxyl-terminal tail of TPbeta was critical for tonic internalization but had no role in agonist-induced internalization. Interestingly, introduction of either a YX(2)phi or YX(3)phi motif in the carboxyl-terminal tail of TPalpha induced tonic internalization of this receptor. Additional analysis revealed that tonically internalized TPbeta undergoes recycling back to the cell surface suggesting that tonic internalization may play a role in maintaining an intracellular pool of TPbeta. Our data demonstrate the presence of distinct signals for tonic and agonist-induced internalization of TPbeta and represent the first report of a YX(3)phi motif involved in tonic internalization of a cell surface receptor.

Selective regulation of Galpha(q/11) by an RGS domain in the G protein-coupled receptor kinase, GRK2

G protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs) are well characterized regulators of G protein-coupled receptors, whereas regulators of G protein signaling (RGS) proteins directly control the activity of G protein alpha subunits. Interestingly, a recent report (Siderovski, D. P., Hessel, A., Chung, S., Mak, T. W., and Tyers, M. (1996) Curr. Biol. 6, 211-212) identified a region within the N terminus of GRKs that contained homology to RGS domains. Given that RGS domains demonstrate AlF(4)(-)-dependent binding to G protein alpha subunits, we tested the ability of G proteins from a crude bovine brain extract to bind to GRK affinity columns in the absence or presence of AlF(4)(-). This revealed the specific ability of bovine brain Galpha(q/11) to bind to both GRK2 and GRK3 in an AlF(4)(-)-dependent manner. In contrast, Galpha(s), Galpha(i), and Galpha(12/13) did not bind to GRK2 or GRK3 despite their presence in the extract. Additional studies revealed that bovine brain Galpha(q/11) could also bind to an N-terminal construct of GRK2, while no binding of Galpha(q/11), Galpha(s), Galpha(i), or Galpha(12/13) to comparable constructs of GRK5 or GRK6 was observed. Experiments using purified Galpha(q) revealed significant binding of both Galpha(q) GDP/AlF(4)(-) and Galpha(q)(GTPgammaS), but not Galpha(q)(GDP), to GRK2. Activation-dependent binding was also observed in both COS-1 and HEK293 cells as GRK2 significantly co-immunoprecipitated constitutively active Galpha(q)(R183C) but not wild type Galpha(q). In vitro analysis revealed that GRK2 possesses weak GAP activity toward Galpha(q) that is dependent on the presence of a G protein-coupled receptor. However, GRK2 effectively inhibited Galpha(q)-mediated activation of phospholipase C-beta both in vitro and in cells, possibly through sequestration of activated Galpha(q). These data suggest that a subfamily of the GRKs may be bifunctional regulators of G protein-coupled receptor signaling operating directly on both receptors and G proteins.

Selective reduction in A2 adenosine receptor desensitization following antisense-induced suppression of G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 expression

Phosphorylation of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) by GPCR kinases (GRKs) is considered to play a critical role in the desensitization of responses mediated by these receptors. To explore the role of GRK2 in A2 adenosine receptor desensitization, we attempted to reduce specifically GRK2 expression in NG108-15 cells by stable transfection with an antisense rat GRK2 cDNA sequence. This yielded up to a 69% loss of GRK2 when compared with plasmid-transfected control cells, which correlated with a reduction in kinase activity when measured by the ability of cell lysates to promote light-dependent phosphorylation of rhodopsin. Levels of GRK3 were the same in antisense and plasmid-transfected controls. On addition of the A2 adenosine receptor agonist 5'-(N-ethylcarboxamido)adenosine, cyclic AMP accumulation was greater in GRK2 antisense cells as compared with plasmid control cells. In contrast, cyclic AMP accumulation via agonist stimulation of either IP-prostanoid or secretin receptors or by addition of forskolin was not significantly different among all clones examined. The increase in A2 adenosine receptor response could not be explained by changes in A2A adenosine receptor expression, as assessed by ligand binding experiments with the radioligand 2-3H-labelled 4-[2-[7-amino-2-(2-furyl)[1,2,4]triazolo[2,3-a][1,3,5]triazin-5-++ +ylamino]ethyl]phenol ([3H]ZM241385). These data show for the first time a direct correlation between expression of GRK2 and desensitization of natively expressed A2 adenosine receptors in intact cells, suggesting that GRK2 plays a major role in the regulation of these receptors. Key Words: G protein-coupled receptor kinase-G protein-coupled receptor-Antisense-NG108-15 cells-A2 adenosine receptors-Desensitization.

Inflammatory and contractile agents sensitize specific adenylyl cyclase isoforms in human airway smooth muscle

Beta-agonists, through activation of the beta(2)-adrenergic receptor (beta(2)AR)-G(s)-adenylyl cyclase (AC) pathway, promote bronchodilation via functional antagonism of airway smooth muscle (ASM) spasmogens associated with the asthmatic state. Although previous studies have demonstrated that beta(2)AR signaling in ASM is subject to homologous (beta-agonist-induced) beta(2)AR desensitization, the potential for inflammatory and contractile agents to impact beta(2)AR signaling in ASM through heterologous mechanisms has not been defined. Here we report that chronic exposure of human ASM (HASM) to carbachol, serotonin, the thromboxane analogue U46619, or histamine induced little change or a small increase in isoproterenol-stimulated cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) formation, but significantly increased cAMP formation elicited by stimulation with forskolin. This latter increase in intrinsic AC activity was largely reversed by pertussis toxin pretreatment, and was unaffected by protein kinase C inhibition. Analysis of both AC function and isoform expression supports a dominant role of AC VI in HASM, and points to important differences in ASM AC isoform expression among species. Additional studies identify AC as the limiting component in beta(2)AR-G(s)-AC signaling in HASM, and thus a potentially important target of therapeutic strategies designed to influence airway contractile state.

Trafficking of the HIV coreceptor CXCR4. Role of arrestins and identification of residues in the c-terminal tail that mediate receptor internalization

The G protein-coupled chemokine receptor CXCR4 serves as the primary coreceptor for entry of T-cell tropic human immunodeficiency virus. CXCR4 undergoes tonic internalization as well as internalization in response to stimulation with phorbol esters and ligand (SDF-1alpha). We investigated the trafficking of this receptor, and we attempted to define the residues of CXCR4 that were critical for receptor internalization. In both COS-1 and HEK-293 cells transiently overexpressing CXCR4, SDF-1alpha and phorbol esters (PMA) promoted rapid internalization of cell surface receptors as assessed by both enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and immunofluorescence analysis. Expression of GRK2 and/or arrestins promoted modest additional CXCR4 internalization in response to both PMA and SDF. Both PMA- and SDF-mediated CXCR4 internalization was inhibited by coexpression of dominant negative mutants of dynamin-1 and arrestin-3. Arrestin was also recruited to the plasma membrane and appeared to colocalize with internalized receptors in response to SDF but not PMA. We then evaluated the ability of CXCR4 receptors containing mutations of serines and threonines, as well as a dileucine motif, within the C-terminal tail to be internalized and phosphorylated in response to either PMA or SDF-1alpha. This analysis showed that multiple residues within the CXCR4 C-terminal tail appear to mediate both PMA- and SDF-1alpha-mediated receptor internalization. The ability of coexpressed GRK2 and arrestins to promote internalization of the CXCR4 mutants revealed distinct differences between respective mutants and suggested that the integrity of the dileucine motif (Ile-328 and Leu-329) and serines 324, 325, 338, and 339 are critical for receptor internalization.

Selective modulation of wild type receptor functions by mutants of G-protein-coupled receptors

Members of the G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) family are involved in most aspects of higher eukaryote biology, and mutations in their coding sequence have been linked to several diseases. In the present study, we report that mutant GPCR can affect the functional properties of the co-expressed wild type (WT) receptor. Mutants of the human platelet-activating factor receptor that fail to show any detectable ligand binding (N285I and K298stop) or coupling to a G-protein (D63N, D289A, and Y293A) were co-expressed with the WT receptor in Chinese hamster ovary and COS-7 cells. In this context, N285I and K298stop mutant receptors inhibited 3H-WEB2086 binding and surface expression. Co-transfection with D63N resulted in a constitutively active receptor phenotype. Platelet-activating factor-induced inositol phosphate production in cells transfected with a 1:1 ratio of WT:D63N was higher than with the WT cDNA alone but was abolished with a 1:3 ratio. We confirmed that these findings could be extended to other GPCRs by showing that co-expression of the WT C-C chemokine receptor 2b with a carboxyl-terminal deletion mutant (K311stop), resulted in a decreased affinity and responsiveness to MCP-1. A better understanding of this phenomenon could lead to important tools for the prevention or treatment of certain diseases.

Internalization of the TXA2 receptor alpha and beta isoforms. Role of the differentially spliced cooh terminus in agonist-promoted receptor internalization

Thromboxane A2 (TXA2) potently stimulates platelet aggregation and smooth muscle constriction and is thought to play a role in myocardial infarction, atherosclerosis, and bronchial asthma. The TXA2 receptor (TXA2R) is a member of the G protein-coupled receptor family and is found as two alternatively spliced isoforms, alpha (343 residues) and beta (407 residues), which share the first 328 residues. In the present report, we demonstrate by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and immunofluorescence microscopy that the TXA2Rbeta, but not the TXA2Ralpha, undergoes agonist-induced internalization when expressed in HEK293 cells as well as several other cell types. Various dominant negative mutants were used to demonstrate that the internalization of the TXA2Rbeta is dynamin-, GRK-, and arrestin-dependent in HEK293 cells, suggesting the involvement of receptor phosphorylation and clathrin-coated pits in this process. Interestingly, the agonist-stimulated internalization of both the alpha and beta isoforms, but not of a mutant truncated after residue 328, can be promoted by overexpression of arrestin-3, identifying the C-tails of both receptors as necessary in arrestin-3 interaction. Simultaneous mutation of two dileucine motifs in the C-tail of TXA2Rbeta did not affect agonist-promoted internalization. Analysis of various C-tail deletion mutants revealed that a region between residues 355 and 366 of the TXA2Rbeta is essential for agonist-promoted internalization. These data demonstrate that alternative splicing of the TXA2R plays a critical role in regulating arrestin binding and subsequent receptor internalization.

Modulation of formyl peptide receptor expression by IL-10 in human monocytes and neutrophils

IL-10, originally described as a cytokine synthesis inhibitory factor, is secreted by a number of cells of the immune system, including monocytes and T cells. Although IL-10 is being assigned as an immunosuppressive cytokine, our study showed that FMLP-R mRNA was rapidly up-regulated by exposure of monocytes to graded concentrations of this cytokine, with maximal (three- to fourfold) stimulation with 10 ng/ml. The effect was rapid, being observable as early as 1 h of treatment with IL-10, maximal between 2 and 4 h, and still evident after 24 h and was associated with an increase of receptor expression on the cell surface as assessed by flow cytometry analysis. Pretreatment of monocytes with actinomycin D completely abrogated the effect of IL-10, suggesting a transcriptional regulation. Moreover, IL-10-treated monocytes showed a significantly enhanced functional responsiveness to FMLP with enhanced (three- to fourfold) chemotaxis and augmented (twofold) intracellular calcium mobilization. In polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN), IL-10 also mediated a twofold augmentation of FMLP-R expression. In parallel experiments, we observed that IL-10 could differentially modulate other chemotactic receptors. Hence, we observed that IL-10 augmented two-to threefold platelet-activating factor receptor (PAF-R) expression, whereas it had no significant effect on the fifth component of complement (C5a) receptor (C5a-R) expression. Collectively, our results demonstrate that IL-10 may play an important role in inflammatory process through modulation of chemotactic receptor expression.

Pharmacological inhibition of protein kinases in intact cells: antagonism of beta adrenergic receptor ligand binding by H-89 reveals limitations of usefulness

The use of pharmacological inhibitors of protein kinases represents a potentially powerful tool in dissecting the regulatory features of intracellular signaling pathways. However, although the in vitro potency, selectivity, and efficacy of numerous kinase inhibitors have been characterized, little is known regarding the usefulness of these compounds as inhibitors in intact cells. In attempting to characterize the role of protein kinase A (PKA) in regulating the beta-2 adrenergic receptor (AR) in human airway cells, we observed a seemingly profound capacity of the isoquinoline H-89, a potent and widely used PKA inhibitor, to attenuate agonist-mediated desensitization of the beta-2 AR. Although additional experiments identified H-89 as an effective inhibitor of intracellular PKA, extended analysis of the compound determined the principal effect of H-89 was via its action as a beta-2 AR antagonist. Pretreatment with or the acute addition of H-89 significantly attenuated isoproterenol-stimulated cAMP accumulation. In cells pretreated with H-89 and then washed extensively, the subsequent dose-dependent response to isoproterenol suggested beta-2 AR antagonism by retained H-89. Competition binding of [125I]iodopindolol established Ki values of approximately 180 nM and 350 nM for H-89 antagonism of beta-2 AR and beta-1 AR, respectively. Additional receptor binding studies suggest selectivity of H-89 for the beta-2 AR and beta-1 AR, although a weak antagonism (Ki values of approximately 10 microM or greater) of other G protein-coupled receptors was observed. Results from additional pharmacological and biochemical analyses of various protein kinase inhibitors further established the need for careful characterization of pharmacological inhibitors when used in intact cell models.

Structural and functional requirements for agonist-induced internalization of the human platelet-activating factor receptor

The receptor for platelet-activating factor (PAF) is a member of the G-protein-coupled receptor family. To study the structural elements and mechanisms involved in the internalization of human PAF receptor (hPAFR), we used the following mutants: a truncated mutant in the C-terminal tail of the receptor (Cys317 --> Stop) and mutations in the (D/N)P(X)2,3Y motif (Asp289 --> Asn,Ala and Tyr293 --> Phe,Ala). Chinese hamster ovary cells expressing the Cys317 --> Stop mutant exhibited a marked reduction in their capacity to internalize PAF, suggesting the existence of determinants important for endocytosis in the last 26 amino acids of the cytoplasmic tail. Substitution of Asp289 to alanine abolished both internalization and G-protein coupling, whereas substitution of Tyr293 to alanine abolished coupling but not internalization. Inhibition or activation of protein kinase C did not significantly affect the internalization process. Receptor sequestration and ligand uptake was, at least in part, blocked by concanavalin A and blockers of endocytosis mediated by clathrin-coated pits. Our data suggest that the internalization of a G-protein-coupled receptor and coupling to a G-protein can be two independent events. Moreover, the C terminus tail of hPAFR, but not the putative internalization motifs, may be involved in the internalization of hPAFR.

Role of the Cys90, Cys95 and Cys173 residues in the structure and function of the human platelet-activating factor receptor

Platelet-activating factor (PAF) is a potent phospholipid mediator which binds to a specific, high affinity receptor of the G protein-coupled receptor family. In the present report, we show that ligand binding to the PAF receptor is sensitive to the reducing agent dithiothreitol (DTT), suggesting the involvement of disulfide linkages in the proper PAF receptor conformation. Substitutions of Cys90, Cys95 and Cys173 to Ala or Ser demonstrated that these cysteine residues are critical for normal cell surface expression of the PAF receptor protein and ligand binding to the receptor. The Cys90 and Cys173 mutant receptors did not display any specific ligand binding, were not expressed on the cell surface but were found in the intracellular compartment. The Cys95 mutants showed specific binding and were able to stimulate low levels of inositol phosphate (IP) production. These mutants were expressed at low density on the cell surface and showed high expression intracellularly. Our results suggest that the structure and function of the PAF receptor require the conserved Cys90 and Cys173 to form a disulfide bond. Moreover, Cys95 also appears to be necessary, possibly by establishing a disulfide linkage with an as yet unidentified Cys residue. All three residues appear essential for the proper folding and surface expression of the PAF receptor protein.

Augmented expression of platelet-activating factor receptor gene by TNF-alpha through transcriptional activation in human monocytes

Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) is a cytokine produced by activated monocytes and often associated with platelet-activating factor (PAF) during the pathogenesis of many inflammatory and infectious diseases. PAFR is a G-protein-coupled receptor constitutively expressed on monocytes. TNF-alpha (100-400 U/mL) significantly increased PAFR mRNA expression in human monocytes. This increase was seen after 1 h of stimulation and persisted up to 24 h. Actinomycin D pretreatment studies revealed a transcriptional increase in PAFR gene expression without effect on mRNA half-life. [3H]WEB 2086 binding studies showed a significant (43%) increase in specific binding sites in 24-h-treated cells without change in receptor affinity. Increased interleukin-6 production in response to PAF was also found in 24-h TNF-alpha-pretreated monocytes. These observations provide new evidence for TNF-alpha and PAF interactions in human monocytes during inflammatory processes through up-regulation of PAFR expression by TNF-alpha.

Modulation of human platelet-activating factor receptor gene expression by protein kinase C activation

The effect of PMA on early and late regulation of platelet-activating factor receptor (PAF-R) expression was examined in human monocytes. Treatment with 16 nM PMA for 5 min initiated a rapid reduction (50-75%) in [3H]WEB 2086 binding, which was maximal between 5 and 15 min. Scatchard analysis revealed that PMA treatment reduced the number of binding sites to 50% of control cells without an appreciable change in their affinity. In parallel cultures, flow cytometry analysis using anti-PAF-R Abs failed to reveal any significant decrease in the level of PAF-R expression until after 4 h of treatment with PMA. By 24 h, PAF-R expression had declined by 80 to 90%. This PMA-induced down-regulation of surface PAF-R expression was preceded by a rapid down-regulation of PAF-R mRNA expression. PMA-mediated down-regulation could be blocked by the protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitors H-7 and calphostin C. Activation of PKC by the diacylglycerol analogue 1-oleoyl-2-acetylglycerol also resulted in down-regulation of PAF-R mRNA accumulation, whereas the inactive phorbol diester 4alpha-PMA was ineffective. The rapid disappearance of the PAF-R transcripts was associated with decreased stability of receptor mRNA and not with a change in the nuclear transcription rate of the PAF-R gene. These findings indicate that PAF-R gene expression in human leukocytes can be regulated through a PKC-dependent pathway and involves post-transcriptional destabilization of receptor mRNA.

Modulation of human platelet-activating factor receptor gene expression by protein kinase C activation

The effect of PMA on early and late regulation of platelet-activating factor receptor (PAF-R) expression was examined in human monocytes. Treatment with 16 nM PMA for 5 min initiated a rapid reduction (50-75%) in [3H]WEB 2086 binding, which was maximal between 5 and 15 min. Scatchard analysis revealed that PMA treatment reduced the number of binding sites to 50% of control cells without an appreciable change in their affinity. In parallel cultures, flow cytometry analysis using anti-PAF-R Abs failed to reveal any significant decrease in the level of PAF-R expression until after 4 h of treatment with PMA. By 24 h, PAF-R expression had declined by 80 to 90%. This PMA-induced down-regulation of surface PAF-R expression was preceded by a rapid down-regulation of PAF-R mRNA expression. PMA-mediated down-regulation could be blocked by the protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitors H-7 and calphostin C. Activation of PKC by the diacylglycerol analogue 1-oleoyl-2-acetylglycerol also resulted in down-regulation of PAF-R mRNA accumulation, whereas the inactive phorbol diester 4alpha-PMA was ineffective. The rapid disappearance of the PAF-R transcripts was associated with decreased stability of receptor mRNA and not with a change in the nuclear transcription rate of the PAF-R gene. These findings indicate that PAF-R gene expression in human leukocytes can be regulated through a PKC-dependent pathway and involves post-transcriptional destabilization of receptor mRNA.

Identification of transmembrane domain residues determinant in the structure-function relationship of the human platelet-activating factor receptor by site-directed mutagenesis

Platelet-activating factor (PAF) is a potent phospholipid mediator that produces a wide range of biological responses. The PAF receptor is a member of the seven-transmembrane GTP-binding regulatory protein-coupled receptor superfamily. This receptor binds PAF with high affinity and couples to multiple signaling pathways, leading to physiological responses that can be inhibited by various structurally distinct PAF antagonists. We have used site-directed mutagenesis and functional expression studies to examine the role of the Phe97 and Phe98 residues located in the third transmembrane helix and Asn285 and Asp289 of the seventh transmembrane helix in ligand binding and activation of the human PAF receptor in transiently transfected COS-7 cells. The double mutant FFGG (Phe97 and Phe98 mutated into Gly residues) showed a 3-4-fold decrease in affinity for PAF, but not for the specific antagonist WEB2086, when compared with the wild-type (WT) receptor. The FFGG mutant receptor, however, displayed normal agonist activation, suggesting that these two adjacent Phe residues maintain the native PAF receptor conformation rather than interacting with the ligand. On the other hand, substitution of Ala for Asp289 increased the receptor affinity for PAF but abolished PAF-dependent inositol phosphate accumulation; it did not affect WEB2086 binding. Substitution of Asn for Asp289, however, resulted in a mutant receptor with normal binding and activation characteristics. When Asn285 was mutated to Ala, the resulting receptor was undistinguishable from the WT receptor. Surprisingly, substitution of Ile for Asn285 led to a loss of ligand binding despite normal cell surface expression levels of this mutant, as verified by flow cytometric analysis. Our data suggest that residues 285 and 289 are determinant in the structure and activation of the PAF receptor but not in direct ligand binding, as had been recently proposed in a PAF receptor molecular model.

Mutations of two adjacent amino acids generate inactive and constitutively active forms of the human platelet-activating factor receptor

We have mutated two residues, Ala230 and Leu231, in the C-terminal portion of the third intracellular loop of the human platelet-activating factor (PAF) receptor into Glu230 and Arg231, respectively. The Leu231 --> Arg231 substitution led to two major modifications: 1) increased constitutive activity of the PAF receptor resulting in agonist-independent production of inositol phosphates and 2) increased affinity of the receptor for binding PAF (agonist) but not WEB2086 (antagonist). The L231R mutant was able to adopt at least two conformations: (i) a higher affinity state than the corresponding state of the wild-type receptor (WT), dependent on G protein coupling, and (ii) a low affinity state, higher than the one for the uncoupled WT receptor. The Ala230 --> Glu230 substitution also resulted in two major modifications: 1) unresponsiveness in terms of phosphatidylinositol hydrolysis in response to PAF and 2) a marked decrease in affinity of the receptor for binding the agonist but not the antagonist. Competition binding studies of transient receptor expression in COS-7 cells and the inability of guanosine 5 -O-(3-thiotriphosphate) to modulate the decrease in affinity of a stable A230E mutant in Chinese hamster ovary cells suggest an inherent low affinity conformation for this mutant. Alternatively, mutation of Ala230 to Gln230 suggested that the residue 230 has a fundamental effect on receptor affinity and its charge is determinant in G protein coupling of the PAF receptor. In this report, we show that substitution of two immediately adjacent residues of the PAF receptor, Ala230 and Leu231, surprisingly leads to an inactive and a constitutively active phenotype, respectively. These results further support the concept of constitutively active G protein-coupled receptors as adopting ''active'' state conformations similar to those induced by agonist binding to WT receptors.

Mutation of an aspartate at position 63 in the human platelet-activating factor receptor augments binding affinity but abolishes G-protein-coupling and inositol phosphate production

Platelet-activating factor is a potent phospholipid mediator which binds to a specific, high affinity receptor of the G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) family. In the present report, we demonstrate that the highly conserved aspartate 63 is critical in G protein coupling of the PAF receptor: substitution of an asparagine for the aspartate 63 (D63N) abolished inositol phosphate production following agonist stimulation; moreover, binding isotherms of the D63N mutant were monophasic and unaffected by GTPgammaS. We also demonstrate that aspartate 63 is not involved in direct interaction with the agonist: the D63N mutant displayed a higher intrinsic affinity for PAF than the uncoupled WT receptor. Sodium decreased specific (3)H-PAF and antagonist (3)H-WEB2086 binding to the PAF receptor, but the aspartate 63 residue was not involved in this regulation, contrary to cognate aspartate residues in other GPCRs. Our data suggest that aspartate 63 in the PAF receptor may be involved in the structural requirement for G protein coupling to the receptor and may contribute to receptor affinity for the ligand.

Transforming growth factor-beta up-regulates the gene expression of the human platelet-activating factor receptor in monocytic and B cell lines

Platelet-activating factor is a potent phospholipid mediator which produces a wide range of biological responses by binding to a specific, high-affinity receptor on the target cell surface. Platelet-activating factor has been shown to have a very important pro-inflammatory role while the cytokine transforming growth factor-beta, also known for its diverse and potent effects, can act as both a pro- and anti-inflammatory agent. To ascertain whether transforming growth factor-beta could modulate the expression of the human platelet-activating factor receptor, different cell types were stimulated with this cytokine and the effect determined by Northern blot analysis and Ca2+ influx studies. The results demonstrate that transforming growth factor-beta induces the expression of the platelet-activating factor receptor in monocytic and B cell lines and indicate that transforming growth factor-beta could play a role in the modulation of the inflammatory response by up-regulating the expression of the platelet-activating factor receptor.