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Haney M, Vallée M, Fabre S, Collins Reed S, Zanese M, Campistron G, Arout CA, Foltin RW, Cooper ZD, Kearney-Ramos T, Metna M, Justinova Z, Schindler C, Hebert-Chatelain E, Bellocchio L, Cathala A, Bari A, Serrat R, Finlay DB, Caraci F, Redon B, Martín-García E, Busquets-Garcia A, Matias I, Levin FR, Felpin FX, Simon N, Cota D, Spampinato U, Maldonado R, Shaham Y, Glass M, Thomsen LL, Mengel H, Marsicano G, Monlezun S, Revest JM, Piazza PV. Signaling-specific inhibition of the CB 1 receptor for cannabis use disorder: phase 1 and phase 2a randomized trials. Nat Med 2023; 29:1487-1499. [PMID: 37291212 PMCID: PMC10287566 DOI: 10.1038/s41591-023-02381-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2022] [Accepted: 05/01/2023] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Cannabis use disorder (CUD) is widespread, and there is no pharmacotherapy to facilitate its treatment. AEF0117, the first of a new pharmacological class, is a signaling-specific inhibitor of the cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1-SSi). AEF0117 selectively inhibits a subset of intracellular effects resulting from Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) binding without modifying behavior per se. In mice and non-human primates, AEF0117 decreased cannabinoid self-administration and THC-related behavioral impairment without producing significant adverse effects. In single-ascending-dose (0.2 mg, 0.6 mg, 2 mg and 6 mg; n = 40) and multiple-ascending-dose (0.6 mg, 2 mg and 6 mg; n = 24) phase 1 trials, healthy volunteers were randomized to ascending-dose cohorts (n = 8 per cohort; 6:2 AEF0117 to placebo randomization). In both studies, AEF0117 was safe and well tolerated (primary outcome measurements). In a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover phase 2a trial, volunteers with CUD were randomized to two ascending-dose cohorts (0.06 mg, n = 14; 1 mg, n = 15). AEF0117 significantly reduced cannabis' positive subjective effects (primary outcome measurement, assessed by visual analog scales) by 19% (0.06 mg) and 38% (1 mg) compared to placebo (P < 0.04). AEF0117 (1 mg) also reduced cannabis self-administration (P < 0.05). In volunteers with CUD, AEF0117 was well tolerated and did not precipitate cannabis withdrawal. These data suggest that AEF0117 is a safe and potentially efficacious treatment for CUD.ClinicalTrials.gov identifiers: NCT03325595 , NCT03443895 and NCT03717272 .
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Affiliation(s)
- Margaret Haney
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, USA
| | - Monique Vallée
- University of Bordeaux, INSERM, Neurocentre Magendie, Bordeaux, France
| | | | - Stephanie Collins Reed
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, USA
| | | | | | - Caroline A Arout
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, USA
| | - Richard W Foltin
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, USA
| | - Ziva D Cooper
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, USA
- University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Tonisha Kearney-Ramos
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, USA
| | | | - Zuzana Justinova
- Behavioral Neuroscience Research Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Charles Schindler
- Behavioral Neuroscience Research Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | | | - Luigi Bellocchio
- University of Bordeaux, INSERM, Neurocentre Magendie, Bordeaux, France
| | - Adeline Cathala
- University of Bordeaux, INSERM, Neurocentre Magendie, Bordeaux, France
| | | | | | - David B Finlay
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Filippo Caraci
- University of Bordeaux, INSERM, Neurocentre Magendie, Bordeaux, France
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, Italy, and Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, Unit of Translational Neuropharmacology, Troina, Italy
| | - Bastien Redon
- University of Bordeaux, INSERM, Neurocentre Magendie, Bordeaux, France
- Basic Neuroscience Department, Université de Genève, Genève, Switzerland
| | - Elena Martín-García
- Laboratory of Neuropharmacology, Department of Medicine and Life Sciences, University Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Arnau Busquets-Garcia
- University of Bordeaux, INSERM, Neurocentre Magendie, Bordeaux, France
- Cell-Type Mechanisms in Normal and Pathological Behavior Research Group, Neuroscience Programme, IMIM Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Isabelle Matias
- University of Bordeaux, INSERM, Neurocentre Magendie, Bordeaux, France
| | - Frances R Levin
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, USA
| | | | - Nicolas Simon
- Aix Marseille Univ, APHM, INSERM, IRD, SESSTIM, Hop Sainte Marguerite, Service de Pharmacologie Clinique, Marseille, France
| | - Daniela Cota
- University of Bordeaux, INSERM, Neurocentre Magendie, Bordeaux, France
| | | | - Rafael Maldonado
- Laboratory of Neuropharmacology, Department of Medicine and Life Sciences, University Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Yavin Shaham
- Behavioral Neuroscience Research Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Michelle Glass
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
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Cathala A, Lucas G, López-Terrones E, Revest JM, Artigas F, Spampinato U. Differential expression of serotonin 2B receptors in GABAergic and serotoninergic neurons of the rat and mouse dorsal raphe nucleus. Mol Cell Neurosci 2022; 121:103750. [PMID: 35697176 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcn.2022.103750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2022] [Revised: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The central serotonin2B receptor (5-HT2BR) modulates 5-HT and dopamine (DA) neuronal function in the mammalian brain and has been suggested as a potential target for the treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders involving derangements of these monoamine systems, such as schizophrenia, cocaine abuse and dependence and major depressive disorder. Studies in rats and mice yielded contrasting results on the control of 5-HT/DA networks by 5-HT2BRs, thereby leading to opposite views on the therapeutic potential of 5-HT2BR agents for treating the above disorders. These discrepancies may result from anatomo-functional differences related to a different cellular location of 5-HT2BRs in rat and mouse brain. Using immunohistochemistry, we assessed this hypothesis by examining the expression of 5-HT2BRs in 5-HT and GABAergic neurons of rats and mice within different subregions of the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN), currently considered as the main site of action of 5-HT2B agents. Likewise, using in vivo microdialysis, we examined their functional relevance in the control of DRN 5-HT outflow, a surrogate index of 5-HT neuronal activity. In the DRN of both species, 5-HT2BRs are expressed in 5-HT cells expressing tryptophan hydroxylase 2 (TPH2), in GABAergic cells expressing glutamic acid decarboxylase 67 (GAD67), and in cells expressing both markers (GAD67 & TPH2; i.e., GABA-expressing 5-HT neurons). The proportion of 5-HT2BR-positive cells expressing only TPH2 was significantly larger in mouse than in rat DRN, whereas the opposite holds true for the expression in cells expressing GAD67 & TPH2. No major species differences were found in the dorsal and ventral subregions. In contrast, the lateral subregion exhibited large differences, with a predominant expression of 5-HT2BRs in TPH2-positive cells in mice (67.2 vs 19.9 % in rats), associated with a lower expression in GAD67 & TPH2 cells (7.9 % in mice vs 41.5 % in rats). Intra-DRN (0.1 μM) administration of the preferential 5-HT2BR agonist BW 723C86 decreased and increased DRN 5-HT outflow in rats and mice respectively, both effects being prevented by the intra-DRN perfusion of the selective 5-HT2BR antagonist RS 127445 (0.1 μM). Altogether, these results show the existence of anatomical differences in the cellular expression of 5-HT2BRs in the rat and mouse DRN, which translate into an opposite control of 5-HT outflow. Also, they highlight the relevance of the subset of GAD67-positive 5-HT neurons as a key factor responsible for the functional differences between rats and mice in terms of 5-HT neuronal activity modulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adeline Cathala
- Inserm U1215, Neurocentre Magendie, Physiopathology and therapeutic approaches of stress-related diseases, Bordeaux F-33000, France; Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux F-33000, France.
| | - Guillaume Lucas
- Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux F-33000, France; CNRS UMR 5287, INCIA, P3TN, Bordeaux F-33000, France.
| | - Elena López-Terrones
- Depart. de Neurociències i Terapèutica Experimental, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona, IIBB-CSIC, Barcelona, Spain; Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Jean-Michel Revest
- Inserm U1215, Neurocentre Magendie, Physiopathology and therapeutic approaches of stress-related diseases, Bordeaux F-33000, France; Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux F-33000, France.
| | - Francesc Artigas
- Depart. de Neurociències i Terapèutica Experimental, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona, IIBB-CSIC, Barcelona, Spain; Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Umberto Spampinato
- Inserm U1215, Neurocentre Magendie, Physiopathology and therapeutic approaches of stress-related diseases, Bordeaux F-33000, France; Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux F-33000, France.
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Di Franco N, Drutel G, Roullot-Lacarrière V, Julio-Kalajzic F, Lalanne V, Grel A, Leste-Lasserre T, Matias I, Cannich A, Gonzales D, Simon V, Cota D, Marsicano G, Piazza PV, Vallée M, Revest JM. Differential expression of the neuronal CB1 cannabinoid receptor in the hippocampus of male Ts65Dn Down syndrome mouse model. Mol Cell Neurosci 2022; 119:103705. [PMID: 35158060 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcn.2022.103705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Revised: 01/27/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Down syndrome (DS) or Trisomy 21 is the most common genetic cause of mental retardation with severe learning and memory deficits. DS is due to the complete or partial triplication of human chromosome 21 (HSA21) triggering gene overexpression and protein synthesis alterations responsible for a plethora of mental and physical phenotypes. Among the diverse brain target systems that affect hippocampal-dependent learning and memory deficit impairments in DS, the upregulation of the endocannabinoid system (ECS), and notably the overexpression of the cannabinoid type-1 receptor (CB1), seems to play a major role. Combining various protein and gene expression targeted approaches using western blot, qRT-PCR and FISH techniques, we investigated the expression pattern of ECS components in the hippocampus (HPC) of male Ts65Dn mice. Among all the molecules that constitute the ECS, we found that the expression of the CB1 is altered in the HPC of Ts65Dn mice. CB1 distribution is differentially segregated between the dorsal and ventral part of the HPC and within the different cell populations that compose the HPC. CB1 expression is upregulated in GABAergic neurons of Ts65Dn mice whereas it is downregulated in glutamatergic neurons. These results highlight a complex regulation of the CB1 encoding gene (Cnr1) in Ts65Dn mice that could open new therapeutic solutions for this syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadia Di Franco
- Univ. Bordeaux, INSERM, Neurocentre Magendie, U1215, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
| | - Guillaume Drutel
- Univ. Bordeaux, INSERM, Neurocentre Magendie, U1215, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
| | | | | | - Valérie Lalanne
- Univ. Bordeaux, INSERM, Neurocentre Magendie, U1215, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
| | - Agnès Grel
- Univ. Bordeaux, INSERM, Neurocentre Magendie, U1215, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
| | | | - Isabelle Matias
- Univ. Bordeaux, INSERM, Neurocentre Magendie, U1215, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
| | - Astrid Cannich
- Univ. Bordeaux, INSERM, Neurocentre Magendie, U1215, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
| | - Delphine Gonzales
- Univ. Bordeaux, INSERM, Neurocentre Magendie, U1215, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
| | - Vincent Simon
- Univ. Bordeaux, INSERM, Neurocentre Magendie, U1215, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
| | - Daniela Cota
- Univ. Bordeaux, INSERM, Neurocentre Magendie, U1215, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
| | - Giovanni Marsicano
- Univ. Bordeaux, INSERM, Neurocentre Magendie, U1215, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
| | | | - Monique Vallée
- Univ. Bordeaux, INSERM, Neurocentre Magendie, U1215, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
| | - Jean-Michel Revest
- Univ. Bordeaux, INSERM, Neurocentre Magendie, U1215, F-33000 Bordeaux, France.
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Raux PL, Drutel G, Revest JM, Vallée M. New perspectives on the role of the neurosteroid pregnenolone as an endogenous regulator of type-1 cannabinoid receptor (CB1R) activity and function. J Neuroendocrinol 2022; 34:e13034. [PMID: 34486765 DOI: 10.1111/jne.13034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2021] [Revised: 08/06/2021] [Accepted: 08/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Pregnenolone is a steroid with specific characteristics, being the first steroid to be synthesised from cholesterol at all sites of steroidogenesis, including the brain. For many years, pregnenolone was defined as an inactive precursor of all steroids because no specific target had been discovered. However, over the last decade, it has become a steroid of interest because it has been recognised as being a biomarker for brain-related disorders through the development of metabolomic approaches and advanced analytical methods. In addition, physiological roles for pregnenolone emerged when specific targets were discovered. In this review, we highlight the discovery of the selective interaction of pregnenolone with the type-1 cannabinoid receptor (CB1R). After describing the specific characteristic of CB1Rs, we discuss the newly discovered mechanisms of their regulation by pregnenolone. In particular, we describe the action of pregnenolone as a negative allosteric modulator and a specific signalling inhibitor of the CB1R. These particular characteristics of pregnenolone provide a great strategic opportunity for therapeutic development in CB1-related disorders. Finally, we outline new perspectives using innovative genetic tools for the discovery of original regulatory mechanisms of pregnenolone on CB1-related functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre-Louis Raux
- INSERM U1215, Neurocentre Magendie, Group "Physiopathology and Therapeutic Approaches of Stress-Related Disease", Bordeaux, France
- University of Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Guillaume Drutel
- INSERM U1215, Neurocentre Magendie, Group "Physiopathology and Therapeutic Approaches of Stress-Related Disease", Bordeaux, France
- University of Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Jean-Michel Revest
- INSERM U1215, Neurocentre Magendie, Group "Physiopathology and Therapeutic Approaches of Stress-Related Disease", Bordeaux, France
- University of Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Monique Vallée
- INSERM U1215, Neurocentre Magendie, Group "Physiopathology and Therapeutic Approaches of Stress-Related Disease", Bordeaux, France
- University of Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
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Cathala A, Devroye C, Robert É, Vallée M, Revest JM, Artigas F, Spampinato U. Serotonin2B receptor blockade in the rat dorsal raphe nucleus suppresses cocaine-induced hyperlocomotion through an opposite control of mesocortical and mesoaccumbens dopamine pathways. Neuropharmacology 2020; 180:108309. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2020.108309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2020] [Revised: 09/09/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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Zanese M, Tomaselli G, Roullot-Lacarrière V, Moreau M, Bellocchio L, Grel A, Marsicano G, Sans N, Vallée M, Revest JM. Alpha technology: A powerful tool to detect mouse brain intracellular signaling events. J Neurosci Methods 2020; 332:108543. [PMID: 31830543 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2019.108543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2019] [Revised: 11/15/2019] [Accepted: 12/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Phosphorylation by protein kinases is a fundamental molecular process involved in the regulation of signaling activities in living organisms. Understanding this complex network of phosphorylation, especially phosphoproteins, is a necessary step for grasping the basis of cellular pathophysiology. Studying brain intracellular signaling is a particularly complex task due to the heterogeneous complex nature of the brain tissue, which consists of many embedded structures. NEW METHOD Overcoming this degree of complexity requires a technology with a high throughput and economical in the amount of biological material used, so that a large number of signaling pathways may be analyzed in a large number of samples. We have turned to Alpha (Amplified Luminescent Proximity Homogeneous Assay) technology. COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHOD Western blot is certainly the most commonly used method to measure the phosphorylation state of proteins. Even though Western blot is an accurate and reliable method for analyzing modifications of proteins, it is a time-consuming and large amounts of samples are required. Those two parameters are critical when the goal of the research is to comprehend multi-signaling proteic events so as to analyze several targets from small brain areas. RESULT Here we demonstrate that Alpha technology is particularly suitable for studying brain signaling pathways by allowing rapid, sensitive, reproducible and semi-quantitative detection of phosphoproteins from individual mouse brain tissue homogenates and from cell fractionation and synaptosomal preparations of mouse hippocampus. CONCLUSION Alpha technology represents a major experimental step forward in unraveling the brain phosphoprotein-related molecular mechanisms involved in brain-related disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marion Zanese
- INSERM U1215, NeuroCentre Magendie, 33077 Bordeaux, France; University of Bordeaux, 33077 Bordeaux, France
| | - Giovanni Tomaselli
- INSERM U1215, NeuroCentre Magendie, 33077 Bordeaux, France; University of Bordeaux, 33077 Bordeaux, France
| | - Valérie Roullot-Lacarrière
- INSERM U1215, NeuroCentre Magendie, 33077 Bordeaux, France; University of Bordeaux, 33077 Bordeaux, France
| | - Maïté Moreau
- INSERM U1215, NeuroCentre Magendie, 33077 Bordeaux, France; University of Bordeaux, 33077 Bordeaux, France
| | - Luigi Bellocchio
- INSERM U1215, NeuroCentre Magendie, 33077 Bordeaux, France; University of Bordeaux, 33077 Bordeaux, France
| | - Agnès Grel
- INSERM U1215, NeuroCentre Magendie, 33077 Bordeaux, France; University of Bordeaux, 33077 Bordeaux, France
| | - Giovanni Marsicano
- INSERM U1215, NeuroCentre Magendie, 33077 Bordeaux, France; University of Bordeaux, 33077 Bordeaux, France
| | - Nathalie Sans
- INSERM U1215, NeuroCentre Magendie, 33077 Bordeaux, France; University of Bordeaux, 33077 Bordeaux, France
| | - Monique Vallée
- INSERM U1215, NeuroCentre Magendie, 33077 Bordeaux, France; University of Bordeaux, 33077 Bordeaux, France
| | - Jean-Michel Revest
- INSERM U1215, NeuroCentre Magendie, 33077 Bordeaux, France; University of Bordeaux, 33077 Bordeaux, France.
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Navarro-Romero A, Vázquez-Oliver A, Gomis-González M, Garzón-Montesinos C, Falcón-Moya R, Pastor A, Martín-García E, Pizarro N, Busquets-Garcia A, Revest JM, Piazza PV, Bosch F, Dierssen M, de la Torre R, Rodríguez-Moreno A, Maldonado R, Ozaita A. Cannabinoid type-1 receptor blockade restores neurological phenotypes in two models for Down syndrome. Neurobiol Dis 2019; 125:92-106. [PMID: 30685352 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2019.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2018] [Revised: 12/24/2018] [Accepted: 01/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Intellectual disability is the most limiting hallmark of Down syndrome, for which there is no gold-standard clinical treatment yet. The endocannabinoid system is a widespread neuromodulatory system involved in multiple functions including learning and memory processes. Alterations of this system contribute to the pathogenesis of several neurological and neurodevelopmental disorders. However, the involvement of the endocannabinoid system in the pathogenesis of Down syndrome has not been explored before. We used the best-characterized preclinical model of Down syndrome, the segmentally trisomic Ts65Dn model. In male Ts65Dn mice, cannabinoid type-1 receptor (CB1R) expression was enhanced and its function increased in hippocampal excitatory terminals. Knockdown of CB1R in the hippocampus of male Ts65Dn mice restored hippocampal-dependent memory. Concomitant with this result, pharmacological inhibition of CB1R restored memory deficits, hippocampal synaptic plasticity and adult neurogenesis in the subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus. Notably, the blockade of CB1R also normalized hippocampal-dependent memory in female Ts65Dn mice. To further investigate the mechanisms involved, we used a second transgenic mouse model overexpressing a single gene candidate for Down syndrome cognitive phenotypes, the dual specificity tyrosine-phosphorylation-regulated kinase 1A (DYRK1A). CB1R pharmacological blockade similarly improved cognitive performance, synaptic plasticity and neurogenesis in transgenic male Dyrk1A mice. Our results identify CB1R as a novel druggable target potentially relevant for the improvement of cognitive deficits associated with Down syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alba Navarro-Romero
- Laboratory of Neuropharmacology-NeuroPhar, Department of Experimental and Health Sciences, University Pompeu Fabra, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Anna Vázquez-Oliver
- Laboratory of Neuropharmacology-NeuroPhar, Department of Experimental and Health Sciences, University Pompeu Fabra, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Maria Gomis-González
- Laboratory of Neuropharmacology-NeuroPhar, Department of Experimental and Health Sciences, University Pompeu Fabra, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Carlos Garzón-Montesinos
- Laboratory of Cellular Neuroscience and Plasticity, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Cell Biology, University Pablo de Olavide, Ctra Utrera km. 1, 41013 Seville, Spain
| | - Rafael Falcón-Moya
- Laboratory of Cellular Neuroscience and Plasticity, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Cell Biology, University Pablo de Olavide, Ctra Utrera km. 1, 41013 Seville, Spain
| | - Antoni Pastor
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, 08003 Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Pathophysiology of Obesity and Nutrition, Institute of Health Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Elena Martín-García
- Laboratory of Neuropharmacology-NeuroPhar, Department of Experimental and Health Sciences, University Pompeu Fabra, 08003 Barcelona, Spain; Department of Psychobiology and Methodology of Health Sciences, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain
| | - Nieves Pizarro
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Arnau Busquets-Garcia
- Laboratory of Neuropharmacology-NeuroPhar, Department of Experimental and Health Sciences, University Pompeu Fabra, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jean-Michel Revest
- INSERM U1215, Neurocentre Magendie, Physiopathology and Therapeutic Approaches of Stress-Related Diseases, 33077 Bordeaux, France
| | - Pier-Vincenzo Piazza
- INSERM U1215, Neurocentre Magendie, Physiopathology and Therapeutic Approaches of Stress-Related Diseases, 33077 Bordeaux, France
| | - Fátima Bosch
- Center of Animal Biotechnology and Gene Therapy (CBATEG), Spain; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain; CIBER Diabetes and Associated Metabolic Disorders (CIBERDEM), 08017 Madrid, Spain
| | - Mara Dierssen
- Cellular & Systems Neurobiology, Systems Biology Program, Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, 08003 Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Rare Disorders (CIBERER), Spain; Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Rafael de la Torre
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, 08003 Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Pathophysiology of Obesity and Nutrition, Institute of Health Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Antonio Rodríguez-Moreno
- Laboratory of Cellular Neuroscience and Plasticity, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Cell Biology, University Pablo de Olavide, Ctra Utrera km. 1, 41013 Seville, Spain
| | - Rafael Maldonado
- Laboratory of Neuropharmacology-NeuroPhar, Department of Experimental and Health Sciences, University Pompeu Fabra, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Andrés Ozaita
- Laboratory of Neuropharmacology-NeuroPhar, Department of Experimental and Health Sciences, University Pompeu Fabra, 08003 Barcelona, Spain.
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8
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Cathala A, Devroye C, Drutel G, Revest JM, Artigas F, Spampinato U. Serotonin 2B receptors in the rat dorsal raphe nucleus exert a GABA-mediated tonic inhibitory control on serotonin neurons. Exp Neurol 2018; 311:57-66. [PMID: 30257183 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2018.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2018] [Revised: 09/10/2018] [Accepted: 09/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The central serotonin2B receptor (5-HT2BR) is a well-established modulator of dopamine (DA) neuron activity in the rodent brain. Recent studies in rats have shown that the effect of 5-HT2BR antagonists on accumbal and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) DA outflow results from a primary action in the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN), where they activate 5-HT neurons innervating the mPFC. Although the mechanisms underlying this interaction remain largely unknown, data in the literature suggest the involvement of DRN GABAergic interneurons in the control of 5-HT activity. The present study examined this hypothesis using in vivo (intracerebral microdialysis) and in vitro (immunohistochemistry coupled to reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction) experimental approaches in rats. Intraperitoneal (0.16 mg/kg) or intra-DRN (1 μM) administration of the selective 5-HT2BR antagonist RS 127445 increased 5-HT outflow in both the DRN and the mPFC, these effects being prevented by the intra-DRN perfusion of the GABAA antagonist bicuculline (100 μM), as well as by the subcutaneous (0.16 mg/kg) or the intra-DRN (0.1 μM) administration of the selective 5-HT1AR antagonist WAY 100635. The increase in DRN 5-HT outflow induced by the intra-DRN administration of the selective 5-HT reuptake inhibitor citalopram (0.1 μM) was potentiated by the intra-DRN administration (0.5 μM) of RS 127445 only in the absence of bicuculline perfusion. Finally, in vitro experiments revealed the presence of the 5-HT2BR mRNA on DRN GABAergic interneurons. Altogether, these results show that, in the rat DRN, 5-HT2BRs are located on GABAergic interneurons, and exert a tonic inhibitory control on 5-HT neurons innervating the mPFC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adeline Cathala
- Inserm U1215, Neurocentre Magendie, Physiopathology and therapeutic approaches of stress-related diseases, Bordeaux F-33000, France; Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux F-33000, France.
| | - Céline Devroye
- Inserm U1215, Neurocentre Magendie, Physiopathology and therapeutic approaches of stress-related diseases, Bordeaux F-33000, France; Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux F-33000, France.
| | - Guillaume Drutel
- Inserm U1215, Neurocentre Magendie, Physiopathology and therapeutic approaches of stress-related diseases, Bordeaux F-33000, France; Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux F-33000, France.
| | - Jean-Michel Revest
- Inserm U1215, Neurocentre Magendie, Physiopathology and therapeutic approaches of stress-related diseases, Bordeaux F-33000, France; Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux F-33000, France.
| | - Francesc Artigas
- Department of Neurochemistry and Neuropharmacology, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona, CSIC-IDIBAPS, Rosselló 161, 08036 Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Spain.
| | - Umberto Spampinato
- Inserm U1215, Neurocentre Magendie, Physiopathology and therapeutic approaches of stress-related diseases, Bordeaux F-33000, France; Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux F-33000, France.
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9
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Cathala A, Devroye C, Maitre M, Piazza PV, Abrous DN, Revest JM, Spampinato U. Serotonin2C receptors modulate dopamine transmission in the nucleus accumbens independently of dopamine release: behavioral, neurochemical and molecular studies with cocaine. Addict Biol 2015; 20:445-57. [PMID: 24661380 DOI: 10.1111/adb.12137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
In keeping with its ability to control the mesoaccumbens dopamine (DA) pathway, the serotonin2C receptor (5-HT2C R) plays a key role in mediating the behavioral and neurochemical effects of drugs of abuse. Studies assessing the influence of 5-HT2C R agonists on cocaine-induced responses have suggested that 5-HT2C Rs can modulate mesoaccumbens DA pathway activity independently of accumbal DA release, thereby controlling DA transmission in the nucleus accumbens (NAc). In the present study, we assessed this hypothesis by studying the influence of the 5-HT2C R agonist Ro 60-0175 on cocaine-induced behavioral, neurochemical and molecular responses. The i.p. administration of 1 mg/kg Ro 60-0175 inhibited hyperlocomotion induced by cocaine (15 mg/kg, i.p.), had no effect on cocaine-induced DA outflow in the shell, and increased it in the core subregion of the NAc. Furthermore, Ro 60-0175 inhibited the late-onset locomotion induced by the subcutaneous administration of the DA-D2 R agonist quinpirole (0.5 mg/kg), as well as cocaine-induced increase in c-Fos immunoreactivity in NAc subregions. Finally, Ro 60-0175 inhibited cocaine-induced phosphorylation of the DA and c-AMP regulated phosphoprotein of Mr 32 kDa (DARPP-32) at threonine residues in the NAc core, this effect being reversed by the selective 5-HT2C R antagonist SB 242084 (0.5 mg/kg, i.p.). Altogether, these findings demonstrate that 5-HT2C Rs are capable of modulating mesoaccumbens DA pathway activity at post-synaptic level by specifically controlling DA signaling in the NAc core subregion. In keeping with the tight relationship between locomotor activity and NAc DA function, this interaction could participate in the inhibitory control of cocaine-induced locomotor activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adeline Cathala
- Neurocentre Magendie, Physiopathology of Addiction Group; Inserm U862; France
- Université de Bordeaux; France
| | - Céline Devroye
- Neurocentre Magendie, Physiopathology of Addiction Group; Inserm U862; France
- Université de Bordeaux; France
| | - Marlène Maitre
- Neurocentre Magendie, Physiopathology of Addiction Group; Inserm U862; France
- Université de Bordeaux; France
| | - Pier Vincenzo Piazza
- Neurocentre Magendie, Physiopathology of Addiction Group; Inserm U862; France
- Université de Bordeaux; France
| | - Djoher Nora Abrous
- Neurocentre Magendie, Physiopathology of Addiction Group; Inserm U862; France
- Neurocentre Magendie, Neurogenesis and Pathophysiology Group; Inserm U862; France
| | - Jean-Michel Revest
- Neurocentre Magendie, Physiopathology of Addiction Group; Inserm U862; France
- Université de Bordeaux; France
| | - Umberto Spampinato
- Neurocentre Magendie, Physiopathology of Addiction Group; Inserm U862; France
- Université de Bordeaux; France
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Devroye C, Cathala A, Maitre M, Piazza PV, Abrous DN, Revest JM, Spampinato U. Serotonin2C receptor stimulation inhibits cocaine-induced Fos expression and DARPP-32 phosphorylation in the rat striatum independently of dopamine outflow. Neuropharmacology 2015; 89:375-81. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2014.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2014] [Revised: 10/16/2014] [Accepted: 10/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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11
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Vallée M, Vitiello S, Bellocchio L, Hébert-Chatelain E, Monlezun S, Martin-Garcia E, Kasanetz F, Baillie GL, Panin F, Cathala A, Roullot-Lacarrière V, Fabre S, Hurst DP, Lynch DL, Shore DM, Deroche-Gamonet V, Spampinato U, Revest JM, Maldonado R, Reggio PH, Ross RA, Marsicano G, Piazza PV. Pregnenolone can protect the brain from cannabis intoxication. Science 2014; 343:94-8. [PMID: 24385629 DOI: 10.1126/science.1243985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 207] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Pregnenolone is considered the inactive precursor of all steroid hormones, and its potential functional effects have been largely uninvestigated. The administration of the main active principle of Cannabis sativa (marijuana), Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), substantially increases the synthesis of pregnenolone in the brain via activation of the type-1 cannabinoid (CB1) receptor. Pregnenolone then, acting as a signaling-specific inhibitor of the CB1 receptor, reduces several effects of THC. This negative feedback mediated by pregnenolone reveals a previously unknown paracrine/autocrine loop protecting the brain from CB1 receptor overactivation that could open an unforeseen approach for the treatment of cannabis intoxication and addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monique Vallée
- INSERM, Neurocentre Magendie, Physiopathologie de la Plasticité Neuronale, U862, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
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12
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Maitre M, Roullot-Lacarrière V, Piazza PV, Revest JM. Western blot detection of brain phosphoproteins after performing Laser Microdissection and Pressure Catapulting (LMPC). J Neurosci Methods 2011; 198:204-12. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2011.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2010] [Revised: 02/23/2011] [Accepted: 04/01/2011] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
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Massa F, Koehl M, Wiesner T, Grosjean N, Revest JM, Piazza PV, Abrous DN, Oliet SHR. Conditional reduction of adult neurogenesis impairs bidirectional hippocampal synaptic plasticity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2011; 108:6644-9. [PMID: 21464314 PMCID: PMC3081011 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1016928108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Adult neurogenesis is a process by which the brain produces new neurons once development has ceased. Adult hippocampal neurogenesis has been linked to the relational processing of spatial information, a role attributed to the contribution of newborn neurons to long-term potentiation (LTP). However, whether newborn neurons also influence long-term depression (LTD), and how synaptic transmission and plasticity are affected as they incorporate their network, remain to be determined. To address these issues, we took advantage of a genetic model in which a majority of adult-born neurons can be selectively ablated in the dentate gyrus (DG) and, most importantly, in which neurogenesis can be restored on demand. Using electrophysiological recordings, we show that selective reduction of adult-born neurons impairs synaptic transmission at medial perforant pathway synapses onto DG granule cells. Furthermore, LTP and LTD are largely compromised at these synapses, probably as a result of an increased induction threshold. Whereas the deficits in synaptic transmission and plasticity are completely rescued by restoring neurogenesis, these synapses regain their ability to express LTP much faster than their ability to express LTD. These results demonstrate that both LTP and LTD are influenced by adult neurogenesis. They also indicate that as newborn neurons integrate their network, the ability to express bidirectional synaptic plasticity is largely improved at these synapses. These findings establish that adult neurogenesis is an important process for synaptic transmission and bidirectional plasticity in the DG, accounting for its role in efficiently integrating novel incoming information and in forming new memories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Massa
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U862, Neurocentre Magendie, Glia-Neuron Interactions Group, F33077 Bordeaux, France
- Université de Bordeaux, F33077 Bordeaux, France
| | - Muriel Koehl
- Université de Bordeaux, F33077 Bordeaux, France
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U862, Neurocentre Magendie, Neurogenesis and Pathophysiology Group, F33077 Bordeaux, France
| | - Theresa Wiesner
- Université de Bordeaux, F33077 Bordeaux, France
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U862, Neurocentre Magendie, Endocannabinoids and Neuroadaptation Group, F33077 Bordeaux, France; and
| | - Noelle Grosjean
- Université de Bordeaux, F33077 Bordeaux, France
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U862, Neurocentre Magendie, Neurogenesis and Pathophysiology Group, F33077 Bordeaux, France
| | - Jean-Michel Revest
- Université de Bordeaux, F33077 Bordeaux, France
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U862, Neurocentre Magendie, Pathophysiology of Addiction Group, F33077 Bordeaux, France
| | - Pier-Vincenzo Piazza
- Université de Bordeaux, F33077 Bordeaux, France
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U862, Neurocentre Magendie, Pathophysiology of Addiction Group, F33077 Bordeaux, France
| | - Djoher Nora Abrous
- Université de Bordeaux, F33077 Bordeaux, France
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U862, Neurocentre Magendie, Neurogenesis and Pathophysiology Group, F33077 Bordeaux, France
| | - Stéphane H. R. Oliet
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U862, Neurocentre Magendie, Glia-Neuron Interactions Group, F33077 Bordeaux, France
- Université de Bordeaux, F33077 Bordeaux, France
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Tronel S, Belnoue L, Grosjean N, Revest JM, Piazza PV, Koehl M, Abrous DN. Adult-born neurons are necessary for extended contextual discrimination. Hippocampus 2010; 22:292-8. [PMID: 21049483 DOI: 10.1002/hipo.20895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 199] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/19/2010] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
New neurons are continuously produced in the adult dentate gyrus of the hippocampus. It has been shown that one of the functions of adult neurogenesis is to support spatial pattern separation, a process that transforms similar memories into nonoverlapping representations. This prompted us to investigate whether adult-born neurons are required for discriminating two contexts, i.e., for identifying a familiar environment and detect any changes introduced in it. We show that depleting adult-born neurons impairs the animal's ability to disambiguate two contexts after extensive training. These data suggest that the continuous production of new dentate neurons plays a crucial role in extracting and separating efficiently contextual representation in order to discriminate features within events.
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15
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Sarrazin N, Di Blasi F, Roullot-Lacarrière V, Rougé-Pont F, Le Roux A, Costet P, Revest JM, Piazza PV. Transcriptional effects of glucocorticoid receptors in the dentate gyrus increase anxiety-related behaviors. PLoS One 2009; 4:e7704. [PMID: 19888328 PMCID: PMC2765620 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0007704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2009] [Accepted: 10/12/2009] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The Glucocorticoid Receptor (GR) is a transcription factor ubiquitously expressed in the brain. Activation of brain GRs by high levels of glucocorticoid (GC) hormones modifies a large variety of physiological and pathological-related behaviors. Unfortunately the specific cellular targets of GR-mediated behavioral effects of GC are still largely unknown. To address this issue, we generated a mutated form of the GR called ΔGR. ΔGR is a constitutively transcriptionally active form of the GR that is localized in the nuclei and activates transcription without binding to glucocorticoids. Using the tetracycline-regulated system (Tet-OFF), we developed an inducible transgenic approach that allows the expression of the ΔGR in specific brain areas. We focused our study on a mouse line that expressed ΔGR almost selectively in the glutamatergic neurons of the dentate gyrus (DG) of the hippocampus. This restricted expression of the ΔGR increased anxiety-related behaviors without affecting other behaviors that could indirectly influence performance in anxiety-related tests. This behavioral phenotype was also associated with an up-regulation of the MAPK signaling pathway and Egr-1 protein in the DG. These findings identify glutamatergic neurons in the DG as one of the cellular substrate of stress-related pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadège Sarrazin
- Pathophysiology of Addiction group, Neurocenter Magendie, INSERM U862, Bordeaux, France
- Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Francesco Di Blasi
- Pathophysiology of Addiction group, Neurocenter Magendie, INSERM U862, Bordeaux, France
- Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
- Istituto di Biomedicina e di Immunologia Molecolare, CNR, Palermo, Italy
| | - Valérie Roullot-Lacarrière
- Pathophysiology of Addiction group, Neurocenter Magendie, INSERM U862, Bordeaux, France
- Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Françoise Rougé-Pont
- Pathophysiology of Addiction group, Neurocenter Magendie, INSERM U862, Bordeaux, France
- Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Anne Le Roux
- Pathophysiology of Addiction group, Neurocenter Magendie, INSERM U862, Bordeaux, France
- Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Pierre Costet
- Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
- Transgenesis Laboratory, Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Jean-Michel Revest
- Pathophysiology of Addiction group, Neurocenter Magendie, INSERM U862, Bordeaux, France
- Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
- * E-mail: (JMR); (PVP)
| | - Pier Vincenzo Piazza
- Pathophysiology of Addiction group, Neurocenter Magendie, INSERM U862, Bordeaux, France
- Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
- * E-mail: (JMR); (PVP)
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Dupret D, Revest JM, Koehl M, Ichas F, De Giorgi F, Costet P, Abrous DN, Piazza PV. Spatial relational memory requires hippocampal adult neurogenesis. PLoS One 2008; 3:e1959. [PMID: 18509506 PMCID: PMC2396793 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0001959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 446] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2007] [Accepted: 03/03/2008] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The dentate gyrus of the hippocampus is one of the few regions of the mammalian brain where new neurons are generated throughout adulthood. This adult neurogenesis has been proposed as a novel mechanism that mediates spatial memory. However, data showing a causal relationship between neurogenesis and spatial memory are controversial. Here, we developed an inducible transgenic strategy allowing specific ablation of adult-born hippocampal neurons. This resulted in an impairment of spatial relational memory, which supports a capacity for flexible, inferential memory expression. In contrast, less complex forms of spatial knowledge were unaltered. These findings demonstrate that adult-born neurons are necessary for complex forms of hippocampus-mediated learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Dupret
- INSERM U862, Institut F. Magendie, Bordeaux, France
- University of Bordeaux 2, Bordeaux, France
| | - Jean-Michel Revest
- INSERM U862, Institut F. Magendie, Bordeaux, France
- University of Bordeaux 2, Bordeaux, France
| | - Muriel Koehl
- INSERM U862, Institut F. Magendie, Bordeaux, France
- University of Bordeaux 2, Bordeaux, France
| | - François Ichas
- INSERM E347, Institut Bergonié, University of Bordeaux 2, Bordeaux, France
| | | | - Pierre Costet
- Laboratoire de Transgénèse, University of Bordeaux 2, Bordeaux, France
| | - Djoher Nora Abrous
- INSERM U862, Institut F. Magendie, Bordeaux, France
- University of Bordeaux 2, Bordeaux, France
| | - Pier Vincenzo Piazza
- INSERM U862, Institut F. Magendie, Bordeaux, France
- University of Bordeaux 2, Bordeaux, France
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Revest JM, Di Blasi F, Kitchener P, Rougé-Pont F, Desmedt A, Turiault M, Tronche F, Piazza PV. The MAPK pathway and Egr-1 mediate stress-related behavioral effects of glucocorticoids. Nat Neurosci 2005; 8:664-72. [PMID: 15834420 DOI: 10.1038/nn1441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2005] [Accepted: 03/28/2005] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Many of the behavioral consequences of stress are mediated by the activation of the glucocorticoid receptor by stress-induced high levels of glucocorticoid hormones. To explore the molecular mechanisms of these effects, we combined in vivo and in vitro approaches. We analyzed mice carrying a brain-specific mutation (GR(NesCre)) in the glucocorticoid receptor gene (GR, also called Nr3c1) and cell lines that either express endogenous glucocorticoid receptor or carry a constitutively active form of the receptor (DeltaGR) that can be transiently induced. In the hippocampus of the wild-type [corrected] mice after stress, as well as in the cell lines, activation of glucocorticoid receptors greatly increased the expression and enzymatic activity of proteins in the MAPK signaling pathway and led to an increase in the levels of both Egr-1 mRNA and protein. In parallel, inhibition of the MAPK pathway within the hippocampus abolished the increase in contextual fear conditioning induced by glucocorticoids. The present results provide a molecular mechanism for the stress-related effects of glucocorticoids on fear memories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Michel Revest
- INSERM U588, Laboratoire de Physiopathologie du Comportement, Bordeaux Institute for Neurosciences, University Victor Segalen-Bordeaux 2, Domaine de Carreire, 146 Rue Léo Saignat, 33077 Bordeaux Cedex, France
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Petiot A, Conti FJA, Grose R, Revest JM, Hodivala-Dilke KM, Dickson C. A crucial role for Fgfr2-IIIb signalling in epidermal development and hair follicle patterning. Development 2004; 130:5493-501. [PMID: 14530295 DOI: 10.1242/dev.00788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
To understand the role Fgf signalling in skin and hair follicle development, we analysed the phenotype of mice deficient for Fgfr2-IIIb and its main ligand Fgf10. These studies showed that the severe epidermal hypoplasia found in mice null for Fgfr2-IIIb is caused by a lack of the basal cell proliferation that normally results in a stratified epidermis. Although at term the epidermis of Fgfr2-IIIb null mice is only two to three cells thick, it expresses the classical markers of epidermal differentiation and establishes a functional barrier. Mice deficient for Fgf10 display a similar but less severe epidermal hypoplasia. By contrast, Fgfr2-IIIb-/-, but not Fgf10-/-, mice produced significantly fewer hair follicles, and their follicles were developmentally retarded. Following transplantation onto nude mice, grafts of Fgfr2-IIIb-/- skin showed impaired hair formation, with a decrease in hair density and the production of abnormal pelage hairs. Expression of Lef1, Shh and Bmp4 in the developing hair follicles of Fgfr2-IIIb-/- mice was similar to wild type. These results suggest that Fgf signalling positively regulates the number of keratinocytes needed to form a normal stratified epidermis and to initiate hair placode formation. In addition, Fgf signals are required for the growth and patterning of pelage hairs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita Petiot
- Cancer Research UK, London Research Institute, 61 Lincoln's Inn Fields, London WC2A 3PX, UK
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Murakami A, Ishida S, Thurlow J, Revest JM, Dickson C. SOX6 binds CtBP2 to repress transcription from the Fgf-3 promoter. Nucleic Acids Res 2001; 29:3347-55. [PMID: 11504872 PMCID: PMC55854 DOI: 10.1093/nar/29.16.3347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2001] [Revised: 07/03/2001] [Accepted: 07/03/2001] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Fgf-3 is expressed in a complex pattern during mouse development. Previously, an essential regulatory element PS4A was identified in the promoter region, and shown to bind at least three factors. To identify the transcription factor(s), we used a yeast one-hybrid screen and obtained a novel Sox6 cDNA (SOX6D). When introduced into cells it strongly repressed activity from both an Fgf-3 reporter gene as well as an artificial promoter containing three PS4A elements. In situ hybridisation analysis showed that Sox6 and Fgf-3 are co-expressed in the otic vesicle of E9.5 mouse embryos in a mutually exclusive pattern, consistent with a repression of Fgf-3 transcription by SOX6. To characterise additional factor(s) involved in Fgf-3 gene repression, a yeast two-hybrid screen was used with the N-terminal portion of SOX6D. Mouse CtBP2 cDNA clones were isolated and shown to bind SOX6 in yeast and mammalian cells. Furthermore, mutational analysis of SOX6 showed that binding to CtBP2, and its responsiveness to this co-repressor, were dependent on a short amino acid sequence motif PLNLSS. Co-expression studies in NIH3T3 cells showed that SOX6 and CtBP2 co-operate to repress activity from the Fgf-3 promoter through the enhancer element PS4A. These results show that SOX6 can recruit CtBP2 to repress transcription from the Fgf-3 promoter.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Murakami
- Department of Viral Oncology, Institute for Virus Research, Kyoto University, Shogoin, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan
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Revest JM, Suniara RK, Kerr K, Owen JJ, Dickson C. Development of the thymus requires signaling through the fibroblast growth factor receptor R2-IIIb. J Immunol 2001; 167:1954-61. [PMID: 11489975 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.167.4.1954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 196] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Mice deficient for fibroblast growth factor (Fgf)R2-IIIb show a block in thymic growth after embryonic day 12.5, a stage that just precedes its detection in thymic epithelial cells. Fgf7 and Fgf10, the main ligands for FgfR2-IIIb, are expressed in the mesenchyme surrounding the thymic epithelial primordium, and Fgf10-deficient mice also exhibit impaired thymic growth. Hence, Fgf signaling is essential for thymic epithelial proliferation. In addition to the proliferative block, most thymic epithelial cells fail to progress from an immature cytokeratin 5-positive to a cytokeratin 5-negative phenotype. Nevertheless, sufficient epithelial cell differentiation occurs in the severely hypoplastic thymus to allow the development of CD4/CD8-double-positive thymocytes and a very small number of single-positive thymocytes expressing TCRs.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Revest
- Imperial Cancer Research Fund, London, UK
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Revest JM, Spencer-Dene B, Kerr K, De Moerlooze L, Rosewell I, Dickson C. Fibroblast growth factor receptor 2-IIIb acts upstream of Shh and Fgf4 and is required for limb bud maintenance but not for the induction of Fgf8, Fgf10, Msx1, or Bmp4. Dev Biol 2001; 231:47-62. [PMID: 11180951 DOI: 10.1006/dbio.2000.0144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 213] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Mice deficient for FgfR2-IIIb were generated by placing translational stop codons and an IRES-LacZ cassette into exon IIIb of FgfR2. Expression of the alternatively spliced receptor isoform, FgfR2-IIIc, was not affected in mice deficient for the IIIb isoform. FgfR2-IIIb(-/-) (lac)(Z) mice survive to term but show dysgenesis of the kidneys, salivary glands, adrenal glands, thymus, pancreas, skin, otic vesicles, glandular stomach, and hair follicles, and agenesis of the lungs, anterior pituitary, thyroid, teeth, and limbs. Detailed analysis of limb development revealed an essential role for FgfR2-IIIb in maintaining the AER. Its absence did not prevent expression of Fgf8, Fgf10, Bmp4, and Msx1, but did prevent induction of Shh and Fgf4, indicating that they are downstream targets of FgfR2-IIIb activation. In the absence of FgfR2-IIIb, extensive apoptosis of the limb bud ectoderm and mesenchyme occurs between E10 and E10.5, providing evidence that Fgfs act primarily as survival factors. We propose that FgfR2-IIIb is not required for limb bud initiation, but is essential for its maintenance and growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Revest
- Imperial Cancer Research Fund, Lincoln's Inn Fields, London, WC2A 3PX, United Kingdom
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22
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Beer HD, Vindevoghel L, Gait MJ, Revest JM, Duan DR, Mason I, Dickson C, Werner S. Fibroblast growth factor (FGF) receptor 1-IIIb is a naturally occurring functional receptor for FGFs that is preferentially expressed in the skin and the brain. J Biol Chem 2000; 275:16091-7. [PMID: 10821861 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.275.21.16091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) transmit their signals through four transmembrane receptors that are designated FGFR1-4. Alternative splicing in the extracellular region of FGFR1-3 generates receptor variants with different ligand binding affinities. Thus two types of transmembrane receptors (IIIb and IIIc isoforms) have been identified for FGFR2 and FGFR3, and the existence of analogous variants has been postulated for FGFR1 based on its genomic structure. However, only a single full-length transmembrane FGFR1 variant (FGFR1-IIIc) has been identified so far. Here we describe the cloning of a full-length cDNA encoding FGFR1-IIIb from a mouse skin wound cDNA library. This receptor isoform was expressed at the highest levels in a subset of sebaceous glands of the skin and in neurons of the hippocampus and the cerebellum. FGFR1-IIIb was expressed in L6 rat skeletal muscle myoblasts and used in cross-linking and receptor binding studies. FGF-1 was found to bind the receptor with high affinity, whereas FGF-2, -10, and -7 bound with significantly lower affinities. Despite their apparently similar but low affinities, FGF-10 but not FGF-7 induced the activation of p44/42 mitogen-activated protein kinase in FGFR1-IIIb-expressing L6 myoblasts and stimulated mitogenesis in these cells, demonstrating that this new receptor variant is a functional transmembrane receptor for FGF-10.
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Affiliation(s)
- H D Beer
- Institute of Cell Biology, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, CH-8093 Zürich, Switzerland
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23
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Abstract
Fibroblast growth factors are a family of intercellular signaling molecules with multiple and varied roles in animal development. Most are exported from cells by means of a classical amino-terminal signal sequence that is cleaved from the mature protein during its passage through the secretory pathway. Fibroblast growth factor-9 (Fgf-9) does not contain a recognizable signal sequence, although it is efficiently secreted. In this study, we show that Fgf-9 enters the endoplasmic reticulum and traverses the Golgi complex in a similar manner to other constitutively secreted proteins. Deletion and point mutation analysis has revealed an atypical non-cleaved signal sequence within the amino-terminal region of Fgf-9. Moreover, the first 28 amino acids of Fgf-9 can function as an efficient non-cleaved signal peptide when appended to the amino terminus of green fluorescent protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Revest
- Imperial Cancer Research Fund, 44 Lincoln's Inn Fields, London WC2A 3PX, United Kingdom
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De Moerlooze L, Spencer-Dene B, Revest JM, Hajihosseini M, Rosewell I, Dickson C. An important role for the IIIb isoform of fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 (FGFR2) in mesenchymal-epithelial signalling during mouse organogenesis. Development 2000; 127:483-92. [PMID: 10631169 DOI: 10.1242/dev.127.3.483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 537] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 gene is differentially spliced to encode two transmembrane tyrosine kinase receptor proteins that have different ligand-binding specificities and exclusive tissue distributions. We have used Cre-mediated excision to generate mice lacking the IIIb form of fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 whilst retaining expression of the IIIc form. Fibroblast growth factor receptor 2(IIIb) null mice are viable until birth, but have severe defects of the limbs, lung and anterior pituitary gland. The development of these structures appears to initiate, but then fails with the tissues undergoing extensive apoptosis. There are also developmental abnormalities of the salivary glands, inner ear, teeth and skin, as well as minor defects in skull formation. Our findings point to a key role for fibroblast growth factor receptor 2(IIIb) in mesenchymal-epithelial signalling during early organogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- L De Moerlooze
- Imperial Cancer Research Fund, Lincoln's Inn Fields, London WC2A 3PX, UK.
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25
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Revest JM, Faivre-Sarrailh C, Schachner M, Rougon G. Bidirectional signaling between neurons and glial cells via the F3 neuronal adhesion molecule. Adv Exp Med Biol 2000; 468:309-18. [PMID: 10635039 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4615-4685-6_25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
F3, a glycosyl-phosphatidylinositol anchored molecule of the immunoglobulin superfamily, is known to influence axonal growth and fasciculation via multiple interactions of its modular immunoglobulin-like domains. We prepared a Fc chimeric molecule (F3IgFc) to identify a) the phenotype of cells bearing F3Ig receptors, b) the glial-expressed molecules interacting with these domains and, c) to characterize in in vitro models the functional impact of the interactions. We observed a strong binding of F3IgFc coated fluorospheres to astrocytes in neural primary cultures and to C6 astrocytoma cells. In agreement, in extracts of developing mouse brain F3IgFc is able to bind tenascin-R, tenascin-C, and isoforms of the proteoglycan-type protein tyrosine phosphatases z/beta. All these molecules are synthetized by glial cells as an indication that F3 participates in neuron-glia interactions. We showed that C6 glia-expressed PTPz/RPTP beta stimulated neurite outgrowth by cortical and cerebellar neurons whereas preclustered F3IgFc specifically modified the distribution and intensity of phosphotyrosine labeling in these glial cells. We also showed that inhibition of tenascin-R interaction with F3 prevented defasciculation of cerebellar explants which normally display a defasciculated outgrowth of neurites on a growth permissive substrate. These results identify F3, RTPz/RPTP beta, and tenascin-R as potential mediators of a reciprocal exchange of information between glia and neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Revest
- Laboratoire de Génétique et Physiologie du Développement, CNRS 6545 Parc Scientifique de Luminy, Marseille, France
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26
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Revest JM, Faivre-Sarrailh C, Maeda N, Noda M, Schachner M, Rougon G. The interaction between F3 immunoglobulin domains and protein tyrosine phosphatases zeta/beta triggers bidirectional signalling between neurons and glial cells. Eur J Neurosci 1999; 11:1134-47. [PMID: 10103110 DOI: 10.1046/j.1460-9568.1999.00521.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
F3, a mouse glycosyl-phosphatidylinositol anchored molecule of the immunoglobulin superfamily, is known to influence axonal growth and fasciculation via multiple interactions of its modular immunoglobulin-like domains. We prepared an Fc chimeric molecule (F3IgFc) to identify molecules interacting with these domains and characterize the functional impact of the interactions. We affinity-isolated tenascin-C and isoforms of the proteoglycan-type protein tyrosine phosphatases zeta/beta (PTPzeta/RPTPbeta) from extracts of developing mouse brain. We showed that both PTPzeta/RPTPbeta and tenascin-C can bind directly to F3, possibly in an exclusive manner, with the highest affinity for the F3-PTPzeta/RPTPbeta interaction. We observed a strong binding of F3IgFc-coated fluorospheres to astrocytes in neural primary cultures and to C6 astrocytoma cells, and demonstrated, in antibody perturbation experiments, that F3-Ig binding on astrocytes depends on its interaction with PTPzeta/RPTPbeta. We also found by confocal analysis that tenascin-C and PTPzeta/RPTPbeta were colocalized on astrocytes which suggests a complex interplay of interactions between PTPzeta/RPTPbeta, tenascin-C and F3. We showed that the interaction between PTPzeta/RPTPbeta and F3-Ig-like domains can trigger bidirectional signalling. C6 glia-expressed PTPzeta/RPTPbeta stimulated neurite outgrowth by cortical and cerebellar neurons, whereas preclustered F3IgFc specifically modified the distribution of phosphotyrosine labelling in these glial cells. Both effects could be prevented and/or mimicked by anti-F3 and anti-6B4PG antibodies. These results identify F3 and PTPzeta/RPTPbeta as potential mediators of a reciprocal exchange of information between glia and neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Revest
- Laboratoire de Génétique et Physiologie du Développement, CNRS 6545 Parc Scientifique de Luminy, Marseille, France
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Buttiglione M, Revest JM, Pavlou O, Karagogeos D, Furley A, Rougon G, Faivre-Sarrailh C. A functional interaction between the neuronal adhesion molecules TAG-1 and F3 modulates neurite outgrowth and fasciculation of cerebellar granule cells. J Neurosci 1998; 18:6853-70. [PMID: 9712656 PMCID: PMC6792965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
F3 and TAG-1 are two closely related adhesion glycoproteins of the Ig superfamily that are both expressed by the axons of cerebellar granule cells. In an in vitro system in which cerebellar granule cells were cultured on monolayers of transfected Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells, we show that F3 and TAG-1 interact functionally. F3 transfectants have been shown to inhibit outgrowth and induce fasciculation of granule cell neurites. By contrast TAG-1 transfectants have no effect on these events. However, when TAG-1 is coexpressed with F3, the inhibitory effect of F3 is blocked. Two possible mechanisms may account for this functional interaction: (1) either TAG-1 and F3 compete for the same neuronal receptor, and in favor of this we observed that binding sites for microspheres conjugated with F3 and TAG-1 are colocalized on the granule cell growth cones, (2) or alternatively, F3 and TAG-1 associate in a multimolecular complex after their binding to independent receptors. Extensive co-clustering of F3 with TAG-1 can in fact be achieved by anti-TAG-1 antibody-mediated cross-linking in double-transfected CHO cells. Moreover, F3 coimmunoprecipitates with TAG-1 in Triton X-100-insoluble microdomains purified from newborn brain. These data strongly suggest that F3 and TAG-1 may associate under physiological conditions to modulate neurite outgrowth and fasciculation of the cerebellar granule cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Buttiglione
- Laboratoire de Génétique et de Physiologie du Développement, UMR 6545 Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Institut de Biologie du Développement de Marseille, Parc Scientifique de Luminy, 13288 Marseille cedex 9, France
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28
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Abstract
Fasciculation and defasciculation of axons are major morphogenetic events in the formation of neuronal pathways during development. We have identified the extracellular matrix glycoprotein tenascin-R (TN-R) and its neuronal receptor, the immunoglobulin superfamily recognition molecule F3, as promoters of neurite defasciculation in cerebellar explant cultures. Perturbation of the interaction between these two molecules using both antibodies and an antisense oligonucleotide resulted in increased neurite fasciculation. The domains involved in defasciculation were identified as the N-terminal region of TN-R containing the cysteine-rich stretch and the 4.5 epidermal growth factor-like repeats and the immunoglobulin-like domains of F3. Fasciculation induced by antibodies and the antisense oligonucleotide could be reverted by a phorbol ester activator of protein kinase C, whereas the protein kinase inhibitor staurosporine increased fasciculation. Our observations indicate that defasciculated neurite outgrowth does not only depend on the reduction of the expression of fasciculation enhancing adhesion molecules, such as L1 and the neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM), but also on recognition molecules that actively induce defasciculation by triggering second messenger systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z C Xiao
- Department of Neurobiology, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, ETH-Hoenggerberg, Zurich, Switzerland
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29
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Buttiglione M, Revest JM, Rougon G, Faivre-Sarrailh C. F3 neuronal adhesion molecule controls outgrowth and fasciculation of cerebellar granule cell neurites: a cell-type-specific effect mediated by the Ig-like domains. Mol Cell Neurosci 1996; 8:53-69. [PMID: 8923455 DOI: 10.1006/mcne.1996.0043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
F3 is a glycane phosphatidylinositol-anchored neuronal adhesion glycoprotein which consists of immunoglobulin (Ig) domains and fibronectin type III repeats. Here we showed that total F3 or F3-Ig domains when presented as membrane components of CHO transfected cells influenced growth cone morphology, strongly inhibited outgrowth, and induced fasciculation of cerebellar granule cell axons. An F3-Ig-Fc chimera induced neurite fasciculation from cerebellar neuron aggregates when used as a coated substrate but not in the soluble form. The F3 effect on neurite elongation is highly specific for neuronal cell types since under the same experimental conditions it did not modify neurite outgrowth of hippocampal neurons and was shown to stimulate elongation of neurites from sensory neurons in both membrane-anchored and soluble form. Our results provide evidence to extend the proposed role of F3 and strongly suggest that axonal-growth-controlling molecules may quite generally exert dual actions which are likely to depend on the receptor repertoire of the responding neuron.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Buttiglione
- Laboratoire de Génétique et de Physiologie du Développement, UMR 9943 CNRS, Parc Scientifique de Luminy, Marseille, France
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