Relationships Between a New Cultured Cell-Based Serum Anticholinergic Activity Assay and Anticholinergic Burden Scales or Cognitive Performance in Older Adults

OBJECTIVES

Anticholinergic burden has been associated with deleterious effects on cognition particularly in those with an underlying brain disorder. We developed a new assay based on cultured cells to measure serum anticholinergic activity (cSAA). We report on its relationships with established anticholinergic burden rating scales and cognitive assessments in older patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) or major depressive disorder (MDD) in remission or both.

DESIGN

The study was cross sectional in nature.

SETTING

This was a five-centre study conducted in Toronto, Canada.

PARTICIPANTS

Serum samples were collected and cSAA levels were measured in 311 participants aged 60 years or older (154 with MCI, 57 with MDD, and 100 with MCI + MDD).

MEASUREMENTS

The cSAA assay uses radio-ligand binding to cultured cells stably expressing the muscarinic M1 receptors, with an added procedure to remove potential confounds associated with serum proteins. Lists of medications were used to calculate Anticholinergic Burden and Anticholinergic Drug Scale total scores. Participants also completed a comprehensive cognitive battery.

RESULTS

Higher cSAA levels were associated with higher anticholinergic burden and anticholinergic drug scale scores, and also with lower performance on executive function tests, after adjusting for age, gender, education, and diagnosis.

CONCLUSIONS

These results support the use of the cSAA assay as a laboratory measure of anticholinergic burden.

Global DNA methylation in suicidal ideation and suicide attempt in schizophrenia

Suicidal behavior is influenced by many risk factors such as childhood trauma, stressful life events, genetic factors, and severe mental illnesses. Suicidal ideation is present in 50% of schizophrenia patients and is associated with an elevated risk of suicide attempt. Studies have shown that epigenetic mechanisms are associated with suicidal behavior in schizophrenia. Although several studies have suggested the importance of epigenetic factors in suicidal ideation and behavior, no studies have investigated global methylation in association with these two phenotypes. This study investigated global methylation level/change in association with current and emergent suicidal ideation and also with suicide attempt. Forty-seven schizophrenia patients were assessed for the association between global methylation and suicide attempt, and a subsample of these patients (n = 27) was assessed for current suicidal ideation. Afterwards, we performed a longitudinal analysis in which global methylation changes during a 3-month follow-up were compared between patients with and without emergent suicidal ideation. This methylation analysis did not find evidence for a significant association between global methylation and suicidal ideation or suicide attempt. To date, there are no robust biomarkers predicting suicidal ideation or behavior in psychotic patients. This study is the first to investigate global methylation in predicting suicidal ideation and behavior. Although we did not find evidence for an association between global methylation and these phenotypes, our findings may offer novel insights into the molecular mechanisms linked to suicide. Future investigation may measure global methylation in association with suicidal ideation or behavior in larger samples.

Rat brain CYP2D enzymatic metabolism alters acute and chronic haloperidol side-effects by different mechanisms

Risk for side-effects after acute (e.g. parkinsonism) or chronic (e.g. tardive dyskinesia) treatment with antipsychotics, including haloperidol, varies substantially among people. CYP2D can metabolize many antipsychotics and variable brain CYP2D metabolism can influence local drug and metabolite levels sufficiently to alter behavioral responses. Here we investigated a role for brain CYP2D in acutely and chronically administered haloperidol levels and side-effects in a rat model. Rat brain, but not liver, CYP2D activity was irreversibly inhibited with intracerebral propranolol and/or induced by seven days of subcutaneous nicotine pre-treatment. The role of variable brain CYP2D was investigated in rat models of acute (catalepsy) and chronic (vacuous chewing movements, VCMs) haloperidol side-effects. Selective inhibition and induction of brain, but not liver, CYP2D decreased and increased catalepsy after acute haloperidol, respectively. Catalepsy correlated with brain, but not hepatic, CYP2D enzyme activity. Inhibition of brain CYP2D increased VCMs after chronic haloperidol; VCMs correlated with brain, but not hepatic, CYP2D activity, haloperidol levels and lipid peroxidation. Baseline measures, hepatic CYP2D activity and plasma haloperidol levels were unchanged by brain CYP2D manipulations. Variable rat brain CYP2D alters side-effects from acute and chronic haloperidol in opposite directions; catalepsy appears to be enhanced by a brain CYP2D-derived metabolite while the parent haloperidol likely causes VCMs. These data provide novel mechanistic evidence for brain CYP2D altering side-effects of haloperidol and other antipsychotics metabolized by CYP2D, suggesting that variation in human brain CYP2D may be a risk factor for antipsychotic side-effects.

Pdxdc1 modulates prepulse inhibition of acoustic startle in the mouse

Current antipsychotic medications used to treat schizophrenia all target the dopamine D2 receptor. Although these drugs have serious side effects and limited efficacy, no novel molecular targets for schizophrenia treatment have been successfully translated into new medications. To identify novel potential treatment targets for schizophrenia, we searched for previously unknown molecular modulators of acoustic prepulse inhibition (PPI), a schizophrenia endophenotype, in the mouse. We examined six inbred mouse strains that have a range of PPI, and used microarrays to determine which mRNA levels correlated with PPI across these mouse strains. We examined several brain regions involved in PPI and schizophrenia: hippocampus, striatum, and brainstem, found a number of transcripts that showed good correlation with PPI level, and confirmed this with real-time quantitative PCR. We then selected one candidate gene for further study, Pdxdc1 (pyridoxal-dependent decarboxylase domain containing 1), because it is a putative enzyme that could metabolize catecholamine neurotransmitters, and thus might be a feasible target for new medications. We determined that Pdxdc1 mRNA and protein are both strongly expressed in the hippocampus and levels of Pdxdc1 are inversely correlated with PPI across the six mouse strains. Using shRNA packaged in a lentiviral vector, we suppressed Pdxdc1 protein levels in the hippocampus and increased PPI by 70%. Our results suggest that Pdxdc1 may regulate PPI and could be a good target for further investigation as a potential treatment for schizophrenia.

Serotonin transporter binding is reduced in seasonal affective disorder following light therapy

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effects of light therapy on serotonin transporter binding (5-HTT BP_ND ), an index of 5-HTT levels, in the anterior cingulate and prefrontal cortices (ACC and PFC) during winter in seasonal affective disorder (SAD). 5-HTT BP_ND fluctuates seasonally to a greater extent in SAD relative to health. We hypothesized that in SAD, 5-HTT BP_ND would be reduced in the ACC and PFC following light therapy.

METHODS

Eleven SAD participants underwent [¹¹ C] DASB positron emission tomography (PET) scans to measure 5-HTT BP_ND before and after 2 weeks of daily morning light therapy.

RESULTS

The primary finding was a main effect of treatment on 5-HTT BP_ND in the ACC and PFC (repeated-measures manova, F_(2,9) = 6.82, P = 0.016). This effect was significant in the ACC (F_(1,10) = 15.11 and P = 0.003, magnitude of decrease, 11.94%) and PFC (F_(1,10) = 8.33, P = 0.016, magnitude of decrease, 9.13%). 5-HTT BP_ND also decreased in other regions assayed following light therapy (repeated-measures manova, F_(4,7) = 8.54, P = 0.028) including the hippocampus, ventral striatum, dorsal putamen, thalamus and midbrain (F_(1,10) = 8.02-36.94, P < 0.0001-0.018; magnitude -8.83% to -16.74%).

CONCLUSIONS

These results demonstrate that light therapy reaches an important therapeutic target in the treatment of SAD and provide a basis for improvement of this treatment via application of [¹¹ C]DASB PET.

Light therapy and serotonin transporter binding in the anterior cingulate and prefrontal cortex

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effects of light therapy on serotonin transporter binding (5-HTT BPND ), an index of 5-HTT levels, in the anterior cingulate and prefrontal cortices (ACC and PFC) of healthy individuals during the fall and winter. Twenty-five per cent of healthy individuals experience seasonal mood changes that affect functioning. 5-HTT BPND has been found to be higher across multiple brain regions in the fall and winter relative to spring and summer, and elevated 5-HTT BPND may lead to extracellular serotonin loss and low mood. We hypothesized that, during the fall and winter, light therapy would reduce 5-HTT BPND in the ACC and PFC, which sample brain regions involved in mood regulation.

METHOD

In a single-blind, placebo-controlled, counterbalanced, crossover design, [(11) C]DASB positron emission tomography was used measure 5-HTT BPND following light therapy and placebo conditions during fall and winter.

RESULTS

In winter, light therapy significantly decreased 5-HTT BPND by 12% in the ACC relative to placebo (F1,9 = 18.04, P = 0.002). In the fall, no significant change in 5-HTT BPND was found in any region across conditions.

CONCLUSION

These results identify, for the first time, a central biomarker associated with the intervention of light therapy in humans which may be applied to further develop this treatment for prevention of seasonal depression.

Addiction-related genes in gambling disorders: new insights from parallel human and pre-clinical models

Neurobiological research supports the characterization of disordered gambling (DG) as a behavioral addiction. Recently, an animal model of gambling behavior was developed (rat gambling task, rGT), expanding the available tools to investigate DG neurobiology. We investigated whether rGT performance and associated risk gene expression in the rat's brain could provide cross-translational understanding of the neuromolecular mechanisms of addiction in DG. We genotyped tagSNPs (single-nucleotide polymorphisms) in 38 addiction-related genes in 400 DG and 345 non-DG subjects. Genes with P<0.1 in the human association analyses were selected to be investigated in the animal arm to determine whether their mRNA expression in rats was associated with the rat's performance on the rGT. In humans, DG was significantly associated with tagSNPs in DRD3 (rs167771) and CAMK2D (rs3815072). Our results suggest that age and gender might moderate the association between CAMK2D and DG. Moderation effects could not be investigated due to sample power. In the animal arm, only the association between rGT performance and Drd3 expression remained significant after Bonferroni correction for 59 brain regions. As male rats were used, gender effects could not be investigated. Our results corroborate previous findings reporting the involvement of DRD3 receptor in addictions. To our knowledge, the use of human genetics, pre-clinical models and gene expression as a cross-translation paradigm has not previously been attempted in the field of addictions. The cross-validation of human findings in animal models is crucial for improving the translation of basic research into clinical treatments, which could accelerate neurobiological and pharmacological investigations in addictions.

Low dose pramipexole causes D3 receptor-independent reduction of locomotion and responding for a conditioned reinforcer

Pramipexole is a clinically important dopamine receptor agonist with reported selectivity for dopamine D3 receptors over other dopaminergic and non-dopaminergic sites. Many of its behavioural effects are therefore attributed to D3 receptor activity. Here we relate pramipexole's ex vivo D2 and D3 receptor binding (measured using [(3)H]-(+)-PHNO binding experiments) to its effects on locomotion and operant responding for primary and conditioned reinforcers. We show that pramipexole has inhibitory behavioural effects on all three behaviours at doses that occupy D3 but not D2 receptor. However, these effects are 1) not inhibited by a D3 selective dose of the antagonist SB-277011-A, and 2) present in D3 receptor knockout mice. These results suggest that a pharmacological mechanism other than D3 receptor activity must be responsible for these behavioural effects. Finally, our receptor binding results also suggest that these behavioural effects are independent of D2 receptor activity. However, firmer conclusions regarding D2 involvement would be aided by further pharmacological or receptor knock-out experiments. The implications of our findings for the understanding of pramipexole's behavioural and clinical effects are discussed.

AMPA receptors mediate passive avoidance deficits induced by sleep deprivation

The present study addressed the effects of sleep deprivation (SD) on AMPA receptor (AMPAR) binding in brain regions associated with learning and memory, and investigated whether treatment with drugs acting on AMPAR could prevent passive avoidance deficits in sleep deprived animals. [(3)H]AMPA binding and GluR1 in situ hybridization signals were quantified in different brain regions of male Wistar rats either immediately after 96 h of sleep deprivation or after 24h of sleep recovery following 96 h of sleep deprivation. Another group of animals were sleep deprived and then treated with either the AMPAR potentiator, aniracetam (25, 50 and 100mg/kg, acute administration) or the AMPAR antagonist GYKI-52466 (5 and 10mg/kg, acute and chronic administration) before passive avoidance training. Task performance was evaluated 2h and 24h after training. A significant reduction in [(3)H]AMPA binding was found in the hippocampal formation of SD animals, while no alterations were observed in GluR1 mRNA levels. The highest dose of aniracetam (100mg/kg) reverted SD-induced impairment of passive avoidance performance in both retention tests, whereas GYKI-52466 treatment had no effect. Pharmacological enhancement of AMPAR function may revert hippocampal-dependent learning impairments produced after SD. We argue that such effects might be associated with reduced AMPAR binding in the hippocampus of sleep deprived animals.

Neurobiological basis of dyskinetic effects induced by antipsychotics: the contribution of animal models

Tardive dyskinesia (TD) is a movement disorder characterized by abnormal involuntary facial movements induced by chronic therapy with classical antipsychotic medications. Currently, there is no satisfactory pharmacotherapy for TD, which represents a major limitation to therapy with classical antipsychotics. In order to develop or optimize therapies for TD, and to develop new APDs with lower indices of motor side effects, the pathology underlying TD must first be understood. The use of animal models has been used to further this objective. Here, we review different preparations that have been used to model TD and discuss the contribution of neuroimaging studies conducted in these models. Studies in animal models have lead to several hypotheses of TD pathology, although none has yet emerged as the ultimate underlying cause of this syndrome. We discuss alterations in functional indices, neuron and synapse morphology and changes in specific neurotransmitter systems that have been described in animal models of TD, and outline how these findings have contributed to our understanding of antipsychotic-induced dyskinesias. We conclude that several non-mutually exclusive theories of TD are supported by animal studies, including increases in oxidative stress leading to structural and functional changes in specific neurotransmitter systems. Elucidating the mechanisms underlying TD neuropathology partly through the use of animal models will lead to the development of APDs with superior side effect profiles or more effective therapies for TD.

Sleep deprivation-induced gnawing—relationship to changes in feeding behavior in rats

We have recently reported that food spillage increases during sleep deprivation in rats, which may lead to an overestimation of food intake in this condition. The objective of this study was to verify whether sleep deprivation induces an increase in gnawing behavior that could account for increased food spillage and apparent increase in food intake. We introduced wood blocks as objects for gnawing and determined the effects of their availability on food consumption and food spillage during sleep deprivation. Wood block availability reduced the amount of food removed from hoppers and decreased the amount of food spilled. However, weight loss still occurred during the sleep deprivation period, especially in the first 24 h, and it was related to a reduction in food intake. Sleep deprivation causes an increase in stereotyped gnawing behavior which largely accounts for increased food spillage observed during deprivation. Specifically, the observed increase in food removed from feeders seems to be due to an increase in gnawing and not to increased hunger. However, even when appropriately corrected for spillage, food intake decreased in the first 24 h of sleep deprivation, which accounted for most of the body weight loss seen during the 96 h of sleep deprivation.

Alterations in dopamine D3 receptors in the circling (ci3) rat mutant

We have previously described a black-hooded mutant rat (BH.7A/Ztm-ci3/ci3) that displays abnormal lateralized circling behavior, but normal auditory and vestibular functions. Neurochemical determination of dopamine and dopamine metabolite levels in striatum, nucleus accumbens and substantia nigra showed that ci3 rats have a significant asymmetry in striatal dopamine in that dopamine levels were significantly lower in the hemisphere contralateral to the preferred direction of turning. Consistent with this finding, immunohistological examination of dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area yielded a significant laterality in the medial part of substantia nigra pars compacta with a lower density of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive neurons in the contralateral hemisphere of mutant circling rats, while no laterality was seen in unaffected rats of the background strain. In the present study, quantitative autoradiography was used to examine the binding of [(3)H]SCH 23390, [(3)H]raclopride and [(3)H]7-OH-DPAT (7-hydroxy-N,N-di-n-propyl-2-aminotetralin) to dopamine D1, D2, and D3 receptors, respectively, in various brain regions of ci3 rats and unaffected rats of the background strain (BH.7A(LEW)/Won). No significant differences between circling rats and controls were obtained for D1 and D2 receptor binding in any region, but mutant rats differed from controls in dopamine D3 binding in several regions. A significant decrease in D3 binding was seen in the shell of the nucleus accumbens, the islands of Calleja, and the subependymal zone of ci3 mutant rats. Furthermore, a significant laterality in D3 binding was determined in ci3 rats in that binding was lower in the contralateral hemisphere in the shell of the nucleus accumbens and the islands of Calleja. Our data indicate that alterations of dopamine D3 receptors may be involved in the behavioral phenotype of the ci3 rat, thus substantiating the findings from a recent genetic linkage analysis that indicated the D3 receptor gene as a candidate gene in this rat mutant.

Decreased adenosine receptor binding in dystonic brains of the dtsz mutant

In patients with paroxysmal non-kinesigenic dyskinesias, episodes of dystonia can be provoked by stress and also by methylxanthines (e.g. caffeine), which inhibit adenosine A(1)/A(2A) receptors. In the dt(sz) mutant hamster, a model of this movement disorder, adenosine A(1) receptor antagonists were previously found to worsen dystonia, while adenosine A(1) and A(2A) receptor agonists exerted pronounced beneficial effects. Therefore, in the present study, adenosine receptor A(1) and A(2A) binding was determined by autoradiographic analyses in dt(sz) hamsters under basal conditions, i.e. in the absence of a dystonic attack, and in a group of mutant hamsters which exhibited severe stress-induced dystonic attacks prior to kill. In comparison with non-dystonic control hamsters, [(3)H]DPCPX (8-cyclopentyl-1,3-dipropylxanthine) binding to adenosine A(1) receptors and [(3)H]CGS 21680 (2p-(2carboxyethylphen-ethylamino-5'-N-ethlycarboxamindoadenosine) binding to adenosine A(2A) receptors were significantly lower throughout the brain of dystonic animals. Under normal resting conditions, mutant hamsters showed significant decreases in adenosine A(1) (-12 to-42%) and in A(2A) (-19 to-34%) receptor binding compared with controls. Stressful stimulation increased adenosine A(1) and A(2A) receptor binding in almost all brain regions in both control and dystonic hamsters. The stress-induced increase was more marked in mutant hamsters, leading to a disappearance of differences in most regions compared with stimulated controls, except the striatum. In view of previous findings of striking beneficial effects of adenosine A(1) and A(2A) receptor agonists and of striatal dysfunctions in the dt(sz) mutant, the reduced adenosine receptor binding may be an important factor in the pathogenesis of paroxysmal dystonia.

Altered expression of preproenkephalin and prodynorphin mRNA in a genetic model of paroxysmal dystonia

The dtsz mutant hamster represents a model of primary paroxysmal dystonia, in which dystonic episodes occur in response to stress. Previous examinations demonstrated striatal dysfunctions in dtsz hamsters. In the present study, in situ hybridization was used to examine preproenkephalin and prodynorphin expression as potential indices of imbalances between the striatopallidal and striatonigral pathways. Brain analyses were performed in dtsz hamsters under basal conditions, i.e., in the absence of dystonia, as well as mutant hamsters that exhibited severe stress-induced dystonic attacks immediately prior to sacrifice. In the striatum the basal expression of prodynorphin tended to be higher, while that of preproenkephalin tended to be lower in mutant hamsters in comparison to non-dystonic control hamsters. Significant basal changes were restricted to higher levels of prodynorphin in the ventrolateral striatum and lower prodynorphin and preproenkephalin mRNA expression in the hippocampus and/or in subregions of the hypothalamus. After stressful stimulation, the neuropeptides increased in several regions in both animals groups. In comparison to stimulated control hamsters, a significantly lower prodynorphin expression was found in several limbic areas of stimulated mutant hamsters during the manifestation of dystonia, while preproenkephalin mRNA was significantly lower in the anterior and dorsal striatal subregions and in nucleus accumbens. Since changes in the expression of these opioid peptides have been suggested to be related to abnormal dopaminergic activity, the present findings may reflect disturbances in striatal dopaminergic systems, and also in limbic structures in the dtsz mutant, particularly during the expression of dystonia.

Antipsychotic dosing in preclinical models is often unrepresentative of the clinical condition: a suggested solution based on in vivo occupancy

What is the appropriate dose of an antipsychotic in an animal model? The literature reveals no standard rationale across studies. This study was designed to use in vivo dopamine D(2) receptor occupancy as a cross-species principle for deriving clinically comparable doses for animal models. The relationship between dose, plasma levels, and in vivo dopamine D(2) receptor occupancy was established in rats for a range of doses administered as a single dose or multiple doses (daily injections or osmotic minipump infusions) for five of the most commonly used antipsychotics. As a single dose, haloperidol (0.04-0.08 mg/kg), clozapine (5-15 mg/kg), olanzapine (1-2 mg/kg), risperidone (0.5-1 mg/kg), and quetiapine (10-25 mg/kg) reached clinically comparable occupancies. However, when these "optimal" single doses were administered as multiple doses, either by injection or by a mini-pump, it led to no or inappropriately low trough (24-h) occupancies. This discrepancy arises because the half-life of antipsychotics in rodents is 4 to 6 times faster than in humans. Only when doses 5 times higher than the optimal single dose were administered by pump were clinically comparable occupancies obtained (e.g., haloperidol, 0.25 mg/kg/day; olanzapine, 7.5 mg/kg/day). This could not be achieved for clozapine or quetiapine due to solubility and administration constraints. The study provides a rationale as well as clinically comparable dosing regimens for animal studies and raises questions about the inferences drawn from previous studies that have used doses unrepresentative of the clinical situation.

Is behavioral sensitization to ethanol associated with contextual conditioning in mice?

Behavioral sensitization to drugs of abuse seems to involve learning processes. In mice, ethanol-induced locomotor sensitization is potentiated by repeated pairing of ethanol (EtOH) injections and the testing chamber. The present study aimed to test: (1). the association between the performance in a contextual conditioning task and the development of behavioral sensitization to EtOH in mice; (2). whether EtOH sensitization would be expressed in a different testing environment. Male albino Swiss mice (n=72) were initially submitted to a contextual fear conditioning task. After 2 weeks without manipulation, the animals received daily i.p. injections of 2.2 g/kg EtOH (n=52) or saline (n=20), for 21 days. They were tested weekly for locomotor activity in activity cages. After 1 week of withdrawal, all mice received 2.2 g/kg EtOH and had their locomotor activity recorded in an open-field. According to the locomotor behavior displayed along the 21-day treatment, EtOH-treated mice were classified as sensitized (n=15) or non-sensitized (n=15). When these subgroups and saline-treated mice were compared for the freezing response in the conditioning test, sensitized mice displayed a greater freezing time than non-sensitized mice. When challenged with EtOH in the open-field, none of the EtOH-treated subgroups expressed behavioral sensitization. These results suggest that the development of EtOH sensitization seems to be positively associated with contextual learning, and further confirms that the expression of sensitization is highly dependent on contextual cues.

Regional decreases in NK-3, but not NK-1 tachykinin receptor binding in dystonic hamster (dt(sz)) brains

Although the pathophysiology of primary dystonias is currently unknown, it is thought to involve changes in the basal ganglia-thalamus-cortex circuit, particularly activity imbalances between direct and indirect striatal pathways. Substance P, a member of the tachykinin family of neuropeptides, is a major component in the direct pathway from striatum to basal ganglia output nuclei. In the present study quantitative autoradiography was used to examine changes in neurokinin-1 (NK-1) and neurokinin-3 (NK-3) receptors in mutant dystonic hamsters (dt(sz)), a well characterized model of paroxysmal dystonia. NK-1 receptors were labeled in 10 dystonic brains and 10 age-matched controls with 3 nM [(3)H]-[Sar(9), Met(O(2))(11)]-SP. NK-3 binding sites were labeled in adjacent sections with 2.5 nM [(3)H]senktide. NK-1 binding was found to be unaltered in 27 brain areas examined. In contrast, NK-3 binding was significantly reduced in layers 4 and 5 of the prefrontal (-46%), anterior cingulate (-42%) and parietal (-45%) cortices, ventromedial thalamus (-42%) and substantia nigra pars compacta (-36%) in dystonic brains compared to controls. The latter effects may be particularly relevant in view of evidence that activation of NK-3 receptors on dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta can increase nigrostriatal dopaminergic activity. Since previous studies indicated that a reduced basal ganglia output in mutant hamsters is based on an overactivity of the direct pathway which also innervates substantia nigra pars compacta neurons, the decreased NK-3 binding could be related to a receptor down-regulation. The present finding of decreased NK-3 receptor density in the substantia nigra pars compacta, thalamic and cortical areas substantiates the hypothesis that disturbances of the basal ganglia-thalamus-cortex circuit play a critical role in the pathogenesis of paroxysmal dystonia.

Changes in AMPA receptor binding in an animal model of inborn paroxysmal dystonia

Previous pharmacological studies suggested that glutamatergic overactivity contributes to manifestation of dystonic attacks in mutant hamsters (dt(sz)), a model of idiopathic paroxysmal dystonia in which episodes of dystonia occur in response to stress. In the present study, [(3)H]AMPA (alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionate) receptor binding was determined by autoradiographic analyses in 41 brain (sub)regions of dt(sz) hamsters under basal conditions, i.e., in the absence of dystonia, and in a group of mutant hamsters that exhibited severe stress-induced dystonic attacks immediately prior to sacrifice. In comparison to nondystonic control hamsters the basal [(3)H]AMPA binding was significantly higher in the ventromedial and ventrolateral caudate putamen, the anterior cingulate cortex, the hippocampus, and the lateral septum of dystonic brains. During dystonic attacks the [(3)H]AMPA binding was significantly lower in the dorsomedial, dorsolateral, and posterior caudate putamen; the ventromedial thalamus; and the frontal cortex of mutant hamsters compared with control animals that were exposed to the same external stimulation. The basal increase in AMPA receptor density within limbic structures may contribute to the susceptibility of stress-inducible dystonic episodes in mutant hamsters. Since AMPA receptor activation is known to cause a fast reduction of the affinity and an internalization of postsynaptic AMPA receptors, the latter finding could reflect a glutamatergic overactivity within the striato-thalamo-cortical circuit during the expression of dystonia, which is in line with previous neurochemical and pharmacological data in dt(sz) hamsters.

Sleep deprivation reduces total plasma homocysteine levels in rats

Hyperhomocysteinemia has been associated with pathological and stressful conditions and is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Since sleep deprivation is a stressful condition that is associated with disruption of various physiological processes, we investigated whether it would also be associated with increases in plasma homocysteine levels. Further, since hyperhomocysteinemia may promote oxidative stress, and we had previously found evidence of oxidative stress in brain following sleep deprivation, we also searched for evidence of systemic oxidative stress by measuring glutathione and thiobarbituric acid reactive substance levels. Rats were sleep deprived for 96 h using the platform technique. A group was killed after sleep deprivation and another two groups were allowed to undergo sleep recovery for 24 or 48 h. Contrary to expectation, plasma homocysteine was reduced in sleep-deprived rats as compared with the control group and did not revert to normal levels after 24 or 48 h of sleep recovery. A trend was observed towards decreased glutathione and increased thiobarbituric acid reactive substance levels in sleep-deprived rats. It is possible that the observed decreases in homocysteine levels may represent a self-correcting response to depleted glutathione in sleep-deprived animals, which would contribute to the attenuation of the deleterious effects of sleep deprivation.

Drug-induced receptor occupancy: substantial differences in measurements made in vivo vs ex vivo

RATIONALE

The number of receptors occupied by a given drug is a central construct in understanding drug action in the brain. Two techniques have been commonly used to measure drug receptor occupancy. In one method, the drug and the radioligand used to measure occupancy compete in vivo while in the other method, the drug is injected into the living animal, the animal killed and the radioligand competes for available receptors ex vivo. While these methods are often used interchangeably, there has been no systematic comparison of their sensitivities and consistency.

OBJECTIVES

In this study, we performed a systematic within-animal comparison of drug-induced receptor occupancy as measured by the in vivo vs the ex vivo methods.

METHODS

We examined the occupancy of dopamine Do receptors by different doses of the drug raclopride using the in vivo and ex vivo autoradiographic methods in the same rat with 11C-raclopride and 3H-raclopride as radioligands, respectively.

RESULTS

The in vivo method showed a significantly greater sensitivity and internal consistency while the ex vivo method was less sensitive, and increasingly so as a function of longer incubation times. The lack of sensitivity was accounted for by the unidirectional dissociation of the drug from the receptors in the incubation medium.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggest that these two methods are not interchangeable; the ex vivo method is much less sensitive, lacks internal consistency and hence is best avoided.

Tissue engineering as a platform for controlled release of therapeutic agents: implantation of microencapsulated dopamine producing cells in the brains of rats

Tissue engineering can lead to novel controlled release devices and controlled release strategies (e.g., of growth factors) can enhance the performance of tissue engineered constructs. There are however a number of technical challenges that must be overcome before these goals can be realized. The apparently 'simple' challenge of implanting the device (e.g., capsules) in the optimal site must be met. In addition, adequate nutrient supply to the capsules is required to maintain cell viability. To illustrate this problem we describe a guide and delivery cannula technique to provide reliable and reproducible delivery of up to 120 PC12 cell containing capsules into the caudate putamen (CPu). Microencapsulation of mammalian cells is potentially a powerful means of delivering therapeutically important molecules such as insulin. It can also have numerous applications as a platform for gene therapy. However, realizing this potential has been more difficult than first anticipated.

Melatonin treatment does not prevent decreases in brain glutathione levels induced by sleep deprivation

Recent findings from this laboratory revealed that sleep deprivation reduces total glutathione (GSH) levels in hypothalamus, suggesting an increased vulnerability to oxidative damage. Since melatonin has been shown to prevent oxidative damage in other experimental situations, the present study tested the effects of exogenous melatonin on sleep deprivation-induced GSH decreases. Rats were deprived of sleep for 96 h on small platforms, and melatonin (10 mg/kg body weight; i.p.) or vehicle was given twice a day. Hypothalamic GSH levels were significantly reduced in sleep-deprived groups, irrespective of melatonin treatment. Indeed, unexpectedly, melatonin treatment resulted in lower hypothalamic GSH levels in all groups, including cage controls. These results confirm that sleep deprivation reduces hypothalamic GSH and further indicate that melatonin treatment not only is ineffective in reversing this effect but may actually potentiate it.

Sensitization to ethanol's stimulant effect is associated with region-specific increases in brain D2 receptor binding

RATIONALE

Stimulation of locomotor activity by low doses of ethanol (EtOH) and the potentiation of this response after repeated administration (sensitization) have been related to EtOH's rewarding and addictive properties and to altered dopaminergic activity in brain. In mice, behavioral sensitization to EtOH occurs only in a subset of treated animals, and this provides an opportunity for distinguishing general drug effects from sensitization-specific brain effects.

OBJECTIVES

In view of evidence suggesting a role for dopamine D2 receptors in EtOH preference and abuse liability, the present study addressed the hypothesis that D2 binding would be altered in specific brain regions in mice showing differential sensitization responses to chronic EtOH administration.

METHODS

Male albino Swiss mice received 2.4 g/kg EtOH i.p. daily for 21 days and were then separated into sensitized or non-sensitized subgroups on the basis of weekly locomotor activity tests.

RESULTS

Autoradiographic analyses of [(3)H]raclopride binding to D2 sites revealed significant increases in the anterior caudate-putamen of mice in the EtOH-sensitized group when compared with either saline controls (+40%, P<0.00009) or to mice in the EtOH non-sensitized group (+32%; P<0.0003). Smaller increases were seen in the ventrolateral caudate-putamen of sensitized animals (+18% vs. control, P<0.02; and 12% vs. non-sensitized mice, P<0.07). No differences were found in other brain regions, including the nucleus accumbens, olfactory bulb and substantia nigra.

CONCLUSIONS

The observed increases in D2-receptor binding in circumscribed targets of nigrostriatal projections may reflect either a pre-existing condition in sensitization-prone animals or a selective vulnerability of D2 receptors to chronic EtOH in these animals. In either case, it may be a marker for differential susceptibility to EtOH sensitization.

Tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactivity and [3H]WIN 35,428 binding to the dopamine transporter in a hamster model of idiopathic paroxysmal dystonia

Recent pharmacological studies and receptor analyses have suggested that dopamine neurotransmission is enhanced in mutant dystonic hamsters (dt(sz)), a model of idiopathic paroxysmal dystonia which displays attacks of generalized dystonia in response to mild stress. In order to further characterize the nature of dopamine alterations, the present study investigated possible changes in the number of dopaminergic neurons, as defined by tyrosine hydroxylase immunohistochemistry, as well as binding to the dopamine transporter labelled with [3H]WIN 35,428 in dystonic hamsters. No differences in the number of tyrosine hydroxylase-immunoreactive neurons were found within the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area of mutant hamsters compared to non-dystonic control hamsters. Similarly, under basal conditions, i.e. in the absence of a dystonic episode, no significant changes in [3H]WIN 35,428 binding were detected in dystonic brains. However, in animals killed during the expression of severe dystonia, significant decreases in dopamine transporter binding became evident in the nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental area in comparison to controls exposed to the same external stimulation. Since stimulation tended to increase [3H]WIN 35,428 binding in control brains, the observed decrease in the ventral tegmental area appeared to be due primarily to the fact that binding was increased less in dystonic brains than in similarly stimulated control animals. This finding could reflect a diminished ability of the dopamine transporter to undergo adaptive changes in response to external stressful stimulation in mutant hamsters. The selective dopamine uptake inhibitor GBR 12909 (20 mg/kg) aggravated dystonia in mutant hamsters, further suggesting that acute alterations in dopamine transporter function during stimulation may be an important component of dystonia in this model.

Immediate increase in benzodiazepine binding in rat brain after a single brief experience in the plus maze: a paradoxical effect

A single drug-free experience in the elevated plus-maze is well documented to reduce the behavioral effects of benzodiazepines (BZs) in subsequent tests. To ascertain the possible role of altered BZ receptor binding to in this phenomenon, rats received a 5-min exposure to the elevated plus maze and were immediately sacrificed. Receptor autoradiography revealed that [3H]flunitrazepam binding was significantly elevated in several amygdaloid and hippocampal nuclei (range: 13-23%); [3H]muscimol binding in adjacent sections was not significantly altered. These results suggest that BZ receptors can change very rapidly in response to anxiogenic conditions. However, the unexpected finding that [3H]flunitrazepam binding is increased by maze exposure suggests that the subsequent loss of BZ anxiolytic effects in the plus-maze is probably unrelated to alterations in BZ binding in brain.

Immunohistochemical and neurochemical studies on nigral and striatal functions in the circling (ci) rat, a genetic animal model with spontaneous rotational behavior

Asymmetrical spontaneous turning behavior or circling phenomena are often related to components of the dopaminergic system, particularly to an imbalance of nigrostriatal function. When a rotational preference is observed, it is typically in a direction away from the brain hemisphere with higher striatal dopaminergic transmission. We have recently described a rat mutant (ci) with spontaneous circling behavior and other signs of functional brain asymmetry. Neurochemical determinations showed that mutants of both genders have significantly lower concentrations of dopamine and dopamine metabolites in the striatum ipsilateral to the preferred direction of rotation. In the present study, we used immunohistochemical, neurochemical, and autoradiographic techniques to characterize the dopaminergic abnormalities of the ci rat mutant in more detail. Age-matched non-affected controls of the same strain were used for comparison. Immunohistochemical labeling of dopaminergic neurons and fibers in substantia nigra pars compacta, ventral tegmental area, and striatum did not indicate any significant neurodegeneration or asymmetry that could explain the lateralization in dopamine levels in striatum of ci rats. Neurochemical determinations substantiated that ci rats of both genders have a significant imbalance in striatal dopamine metabolism, but a similar significant lateralization was also seen in non-affected female controls. Comparison of dopamine, serotonin, noradrenaline and several monoamine metabolite levels in substantia nigra, striatum, nucleus accumbens and frontal cortex of ci rats and controls did not disclose any marked difference between affected and non-affected animals which was consistently found in both genders. Quantitative autoradiographic determination of binding densities of dopamine transporter and D1 and D2 receptors in several parts of the striatum and substantia nigra indicated that ci rats have a significantly higher binding density of dopamine transporter and receptors than controls. Taken together, ci mutant rats of both genders exhibit an asymmetry in striatal dopamine and metabolite levels and an enhanced dopamine transporter and receptor binding, but the link of these differences in dopaminergic parameters with the rotational behavior of the animals is not clear yet. The lack of any significant dopaminergic cell loss in the substantia nigra and the locomotor hyperactivity observed in the mutants clearly suggest that the ci rat is not suited as a model of Parkinsonism but rather constitutes a model of a hyperkinetic motor syndrome.

Acute stress increases thyroid hormone levels in rat brain

BACKGROUND

In experimental animals, exposure to uncontrollable stress induces a number of behavioral and biochemical changes that resemble symptoms seen in human depression and other psychiatric conditions. The present study used a yoked design to examine the effects of uncontrollable footshock stress on brain thyroid hormones in male and female rats.

METHODS

Animals in one group received 15 trials where footshock could be terminated by pressing a lever (escapable shock). Rats in a second group received the same amount of shock, but had no control over shock termination (inescapable shock). Control rats received no shock.

RESULTS

No significant differences were found among the three groups, for either males or females, in whole brain levels of thyroxine (T4) 3 hours after the footshock session. In contrast, significant group differences in brain levels of triiodothyronine (T3) were found for both males and females. In males, brain T3 was elevated by 21% in the inescapable shock group when compared to controls (p < .012). In females, brain T3 increased by 19% in the escapable shock group when compared to controls (p < .026). Plasma levels of both T3 and T4 were at control levels for all groups.

CONCLUSIONS

These results provide the first demonstration that brain T3 levels change rapidly in response to acute stress. The data further suggest that the effects of stress controllability on brain T3 levels may be different for males and females.

Heterogeneous effects of rapid eye movement sleep deprivation on binding to alpha- and beta-adrenergic receptor subtypes in rat brain

Quantitative receptor autoradiography was used to map alterations in binding to alpha1-, alpha2-, beta1- and beta2-adrenergic receptors throughout the brain of rats deprived of rapid eye movement sleep for 96 h. Binding of [3H]prazosin to alpha1 sites, while not significantly different in any of 46 brain regions examined, showed a clear overall tendency towards decreased values after sleep deprivation. [3H]UK-14,314-labeled alpha2 binding sites were not significantly affected by sleep deprivation in any of 91 brain regions analysed, despite a trend towards increased values. In contrast, beta-adrenergic binding was significantly reduced throughout the brain. Binding to beta1 sites labeled by [125I]iodopindolol in the presence of ICI-11855 was significantly reduced in 13 of 69 brain areas examined; binding to beta2 sites labeled by [125I]iodopindolol in the presence of CGP-20712A was likewise reduced throughout the brain and significantly so in 25 of the 72 brain areas analysed. Rank ordering of the binding changes indicated that reductions in beta1 vs beta2 binding were maximal in different brain areas. This pattern of results may reflect a particular configuration of effects specifically associated with sleep loss stress. The results are consistent with evidence of persisting noradrenergic cell activity during sleep deprivation. The observed heterogeneity of effects suggests that not all norepinephrine receptors are equally affected by rapid eye movement sleep deprivation.

Sleep deprivation induces brain region-specific decreases in glutathione levels

Rats were deprived of sleep for 96 h by the platform technique and total glutathione (GSHtau) levels were measured in seven different brain areas. Glutathione levels were found to be significantly reduced in the hypothalamus of sleep-deprived animals when compared with large platform (-18%) or home cage (-31%) controls. Deprived rats also had reduced GSHtau levels in thalamus compared with home cage controls only. Glutathione levels did not differ among the three groups in any of the other brain areas examined. These results indicate that specific brain areas may be differentially susceptible to oxidative stress after sleep deprivation. The apparent vulnerability of the hypothalamus to these effects may contribute to some of the functional effects of sleep deprivation.

HEMA/MMMA microcapsule implants in hemiparkinsonian rat brain: biocompatibility assessment using [3H]PK11195 as a marker for gliosis

Microencapsulation of dopamine-secreting cells in biocompatible, semi-permeable polymer membranes has been proposed as an alternative strategy for dopamine replacement for Parkinson's disease. In order to assess the viability of this proposal, dopamine-secreting PC12 cells were immunoisolated via microencapsulation in a 75:25 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate/methyl methacrylate (HEMA/MMA) copolymer. A submerged nozzle-liquid jet method was used to produce small diameter (400 microm) microcapsules, which were stereotaxically implanted in the denervated striatum of hemi-Parkinsonian rats. A 96% survival rate was associated with the implantation surgery and no deleterious side effects were apparent. Light microscopy revealed good biocompatibility between the HEMA/MMA copolymer and the host brain, as evidenced by the absence of gross tissue damage at the neuronal tissue/capsule interface. Autoradiographic analyses using [3H]PK11195 as marker for reactive astrocytes revealed a moderate inflammatory response, confined to the immediate vicinity of the injection tract. Quantitative analyses indicated that the local tissue response did not differ significantly between brains implanted with PC12-containing capsules and those implanted with vehicle-containing capsules. Taken together, these results support the biocompatibility of HEMA/MMA copolymer as well as the feasibility and safety of stereotaxic implantation of microcapsules.

Regional alterations in neuronal activity in dystonic hamster brain determined by quantitative cytochrome oxidase histochemistry

The neural mechanisms underlying idiopathic dystonia are currently unknown. Genetic animal models, such as the dt(sz) hamster, a model of idiopathic paroxysmal dystonia, may be helpful to providing insights into the pathophysiology of this common movement disorder. Recent metabolic mapping studies in the hamster model, using 2-deoxyglucose autoradiography, demonstrated altered 2-deoxyglucose uptake in motor areas such as the striatum, ventral thalamic nuclei, red nucleus, and deep cerebellar nuclei, during dystonic attacks. Whereas the 2-deoxyglucose method is thought to reflect mainly acute alterations of synaptic activity, determination of cytochrome oxidase activity has been suggested as a method of choice to examine sustained baseline changes in neuronal activity. Therefore, in the present study quantitative cytochrome oxidase histochemistry was used to identify chronic regional alterations in the absence of dystonic attacks in mutant hamsters. For comparison with recent 2-deoxyglucose studies, cytochrome oxidase activity was also determined during a dystonic attack, which was induced by mild stress. Cytochrome oxidase was determined in 109 brain regions of dystonic hamsters and non-dystonic, age-matched control hamsters. In the absence of a dystonic attack, a tendency to decreased cytochrome oxidase activity was found in most brain regions, possibly due to retarded brain development in mutant hamsters. Significant decreases in cytochrome oxidase activity were found in motor areas and limbic structures, such as hippocampus, piriform cortex, fundus striatum, globus pallidus, substantia nigra pars reticulata, mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus, ventral pallidum, and interpositus nucleus of the cerebellum. After induction of a dystonic attack, the trend of decreased cytochrome oxidase activity disappeared, except in globus pallidus and interpositus nucleus of the cerebellum. Although the significant alterations in cytochrome oxidase activity in the absence of a dystonic attack were moderate, the data are in line with previous findings in the mutant hamsters, indicating that dysfunctions of the basal ganglia and their output nuclei are involved in the dystonic condition. Altered neural activity in limbic structures, found in the absence of dystonic attacks in mutant hamsters, may contribute to the stress-susceptibility of the animals.

Regional brain changes in [3H]SCH 23390 binding to dopamine D1, receptors after long-term haloperidol treatment: lack of correspondence with the development of vacuous chewing movements

Localized alterations in brain D1 receptors have been suggested to play a role in the development of vacuous chewing movements (VCMs) in rodents after long-term neuroleptic treatment. In the present study [3H]SCH 23390 binding to D1 receptors in basal ganglia and other brain regions was examined in rats showing high or low VCM levels after 21 weeks of treatment with haloperidol decanoate (HAL). D1 binding was significantly decreased in the caudate-putamen of HAL-treated rats, compared with vehicle-treated controls (- 18%, P < 0.001). However, this decrease occurred equally in treated rats showing high or low levels of VCMs. No changes were observed in any other brain region examined, including various subdivisions of the substantia nigra pars reticulata. D1/D2 binding ratios were significantly decreased in HAL-treated as compared to vehicle controls in all regions examined, with the exception of the olfactory tubercle. However, no differences in D1/D2 ratios between high VCM and low VCM subgroups were detected. Correlations between frequency of VCMs and D1 binding, D2 binding or D1/D2 binding ratios across brain regions were generally modest (< 0.5). These results confirm the ability of long-term haloperidol to induce selective decreases in D1 binding in specific brain areas, but fail to provide evidence for a possible role of altered D1 receptor binding in the development of oral dyskinetic syndromes after long-term neuroleptic treatment.

Regional changes in beta1 thyroid hormone receptor immunoreactivity in rat brain after thyroidectomy

Quantitative [125I]protein G-based immunohistochemistry was used to map the distribution of beta1 thyroid hormone receptor (TRbeta1) in normal and thyroidectomized adult rat brain, using a previously characterized polyclonal antibody. The distribution of TRbeta1-like immunoreactivity in normal brain was largely but not perfectly concordant with previous accounts of TRbeta1 mRNA distribution in rat brain. Thyroidectomy resulted in increased immunolabeling in most brain regions (mean increase: 14%, range: -4% to +25%), with statistically significant effects being observed in 9 of the 36 brain regions examined. Brain regions showing the most pronounced effects included the habenular nucleus (+22%), the oriens layer of the hippocampal CA3 region (+24%), and the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus (+23%). These results demonstrate that the TRbeta1 protein in brain is capable of plastic changes in response to adult-onset alterations in TH levels. The observed pattern of brain regional receptor changes following thyroidectomy may provide clues for functional effects of thyroid function alterations in adults.

Alterations in N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor binding in dystonic hamster brains

The genetically dystonic hamster is an animal model of idiopathic dystonia that displays sustained abnormal movements and postures either spontaneously or in response to mild environmental stimuli. Previous pharmacological studies have shown that competitive and non-competitive N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonists exert potent antidystonic activity in this model, indicating that abnormal NMDA receptor function may be involved in the pathophysiology of this movement disorder. Autoradiographic analysis of NMDA receptor density in 67 brain regions, using the ligand [3H] N-(1-[2-thienyl]cyclohexyl)3,4-piperidine, which binds to the phencyclidine (PCP) site in the ion channel of the NMDA receptor channel complex, revealed that NMDA receptor binding is not substantially altered in dystonic hamster brains compared to age-matched controls. Nevertheless, there was a tendency towards enhanced binding during a dystonic attack in several regions, including a 25% increase in the ventrolateral thalamic nucleus (P < 0.05), which may be associated with altered basal ganglia output. While the data do not indicate widespread abnormalities in the PCP site of the NMDA complex, they do not exclude the possibility of more pronounced changes at other regulatory binding sites of the NMDA complex or other types of glutamate receptors in dystonia.

Localized changes in GABA receptor-gated chloride channel in rat brain after long-term haloperidol: relation to vacuous chewing movements

Several lines of evidence suggest that the GABAergic system may be involved in dyskinetic side effects of long-term neuroleptic treatment. In this study, [35S]TBPS autoradiography was used to investigate changes in the GABA receptor-gated chloride ionophore in rats showing vacuous chewing movements (VCMs) after 21 weeks of treatment with haloperidol decanoate (HAL). A significant decrease in [35S]TBPS binding was observed in the globus pallidus of HAL-treated rats, compared to vehicle-treated controls (+23%, P < 0.001). However, this was equally observed in rats showing high VCM levels (> 70 counts/5 min) and those showing low VCM levels (< 30 counts/5 min), suggesting that this pallidal change cannot account for the differential development of VCMs after long-term HAL. In contrast, a small but significant increase in [35S]TBPS binding in the ventrolateral caudate-putamen was seen in animals in the high VCM group (+16%, P < 0.03), but not in those in the low VCM group, when compared to vehicle-treated controls. No significant alterations were found in other basal ganglia regions and related structures, including the substantia nigra, subthalamic nucleus, entopeduncular nucleus, and thalamic nuclei. The results are consistent with the notion of altered striatopallidal output as a result of chronic HAL treatment. They also suggest the possibility that alterations in GABA receptor-linked Cl channels in the ventrolateral caudate-putamen may contribute to the development of dyskinetic syndromes after long-term neuroleptic treatment.

Autoradiographic mapping of mu opioid receptor changes in rat brain after long-term haloperidol treatment: relationship to the development of vacuous chewing movements

Brain opioid systems modulating basal ganglia function may be involved in the development of neuroleptic-induced orofacial dyskinesias. This study examined changes in mu opioid receptors labeled with [3H]D-Ala2, N-MePhe4, Gly-ol5-enkephalin ([3H]-DAMGO) in 79 different brain regions of rats showing vacuous chewing movements after 21 weeks of treatment with haloperidol decanoate (HAL). Dopamine D2 receptors labeled with [3H]raclopride were also examined in the adjacent sections of the same brains. For brain analyses HAL-treated rats were divided into a group showing high incidence of vacuous chewing movements (VCMs) and a group showing low incidence of VCMs. As expected, long-term HAL resulted in a pronounced elevation of D2 receptors in caudate-putamen, n. accumbens, globus pallidus and olfactory bulbs (range: 27.70% increases) compared to controls. These changes were equal in magnitude in both HAL-treated groups, irrespective of the frequency of VCMs. In HAL-treated rats [3H]DAMGO was significantly decreased in several parts of the basal ganglia, including n. accumbens (-21%, P < 0.01), patchy area of the anterior caudate-putamen (-12%, P < 0.05), ventral pallidum (-27%, P < 0.01) and globus pallidus (-21%, P < 0.02). Statistically significant decreases were also seen in the subthalamic nucleus (-12%, P < 0.05) and ventrolateral thalamus (-21%, P < 0.05), both of which are targets of basal ganglia output. However, as in the case of [3H]raclopride binding, [3H]DAMGO changes were generally seen both in the High VCM and the Low VCM groups. These results confirm that long-term haloperidol leads to a decrease in mu-opioid binding in basal ganglia and related structures, similar to what is seen after 6-OHDA denervation. The observed mu-receptor binding changes may be a contribution factor, but do not appear sufficient to account for the differential development of neuroleptic-induced vacuous chewing movements.

Changes in serotonin and norepinephrine uptake sites after chronic cocaine: pre- vs. post-withdrawal effects

Although acute cocaine is a strong reuptake inhibitor at dopamine (DA), norepinephrine (NE) and serotonin (5-HT) synapses, the effects of chronic cocaine on 5-HT and NE transporters have received less attention than its effects on DA transporters. In the present study, quantitative autoradiography was used to map effects of chronic cocaine exposure on the binding of [3H]nisoxetine and [3H]cyanoimipramine to NE and 5-HT transporters, respectively. Female Wistar rats were given increasing concentrations of cocaine in the drinking water for 4 weeks (mean dose during the final two weeks: approximately 25 mg/kg body weight) and sacrificed either on the 30th day of cocaine administration or at one of two time points after withdrawal (4 days or 30 days). In animals sacrificed while on cocaine. [3H]cyanoimipramine binding was significantly elevated in the infralimbic cortex (+13%, P < 0.05), n. accumbens (+16%, P < 0.05, P < 0.05), lateral septal n. (+21%, P < 0.05), pedunculopontine n. (+16%, P < 0.05), and vestibular n. (+19%, P < 0.05). These changes were no longer observed when brains were examined either 4 days or 30 days after cessation of cocaine. In animals sacrificed while on cocaine, [3H]nisoxetine binding was decreased in the bed n. of the stria terminalis (-18%, P < 0.05), the lateral parabrachial area (-35%, P < 0.05) and the inferior olive (-26%, P < 0.05). In animals sacrificed 4 days after cessation of cocaine, these effects were no longer apparent, except for a 16% reduction in the inferior olive (P < 0.05). In this 4-day withdrawal group, a significant increase in [3H]nisoxetine binding was seen in the paraventricular n. of the hypothalamus (PVN, +33%, P < 0.05). This PVN change was still seen in the group sacrificed 30 days after cessation of cocaine (+44%, P < 0.02). Binding of [3H]WIN 35,428 to dopamine transporters was unaltered in this group. Taken together, these observations indicate that chronic cocaine has different effects on brain 5-HT and NE transporters, both while the animals are on cocaine and after withdrawal. They support the notion that increased 5-HT uptake in limbic forebrain may play a role in behavioral/psychiatric effects of chronic cocaine. They are also consistent with previous indications that chronic cocaine does not induce degeneration of nerve terminals in noradrenergic or serotonergic neurons. The persistent increase in [3H]nisoxetine binding in the paraventricular hypothalamus suggests the possibility of neuroendocrine changes after withdrawal from chronic cocaine use.

Cloning of a G protein-activated inwardly rectifying potassium channel from human cerebellum

Based on sequence homology with the rat atrial G protein-coupled muscarinic potassium channel (GIRK1 or KGA1/KGB1), a human cDNA encoding a G protein-activated inwardly rectifying K+ channel (HGIRK1) was isolated. The cDNA encodes a protein of 501 amino acids and shares 99% identity to rat GIRK1 in its total amino acid sequence. Southern blot analysis of genomic DNA indicates a high degree of conservation among various species. In the human population a useful NlaIII restriction fragment length polymorphism was found in the coding sequence of HGIRK1. Co-expression of HGIRK1 and the 5-HT1A receptor in Xenopus oocytes resulted in opening of the channel upon treatment with serotonin. HGIRK1 currents showed strong inward rectification and could be blocked by extracellular Ba2+. Northern blot analysis shows that HGIRK1 expression in human is most abundant in the brain, while lower levels are round in kidney and heart.

Quantitative autoradiography reveals regionally selective changes in dopamine D1 and D2 receptor binding in the genetically dystonic hamster

Dystonia has been proposed to be caused by abnormal input from thalamus to premotor cortex due to altered activity of the striatum projecting by way of the globus pallidus and substantia nigra pars reticulata to the thalamus. However, in the case of idiopathic dystonia, i.e. the most common form of dystonia in humans, there is only limited evidence to support such a neuroanatomic concept. In view of the problems of studying the pathophysiology of idiopathic dystonia in patients, genetically determined animal models of idiopathic dystonia may be used as a practical means of studying brain dysfunctions involved in this movement disorder. The genetically dystonic hamster is an animal model of idiopathic dystonia that displays sustained abnormal movements and postures either spontaneously or in response to mild environmental stimuli. Autoradiographic analysis of dopamine D1 receptor density, using the ligand [3H]SCH 23390, revealed significant decreases of D1 binding in several parts of the striatum and substantia nigra pars reticulata of dystonic hamsters. Binding of the D2 ligand [3H]YM-09151-2 was decreased in the dorsomedial caudate-putamen, but increased in nucleus accumbens. In most other sites studied, no significant changes were found in either [3H]SCH 23390 or [3H]YM-09151-2 binding. By studying groups of dystonic hamsters in the absence and presence of dystonic attacks, it was shown that most changes in D1 and D2 binding were not secondary to abnormal movement but rather due to the dystonic condition of the animals. The study provides evidence of altered dopamine receptor binding in dystonia and confirms the concept that basal ganglia dysfunction may be a primary component of dystonia.

Synthesis and autoradiographic localization of the dopamine D-1 agonists [11C]SKF 75670 and [11C]SKF 82957 as potential PET radioligands

The high affinity benzazepine D1 agonists SKF 75670 and SKF 82957 were labeled with 11C by N-[11C]methylation of SKF 38393 and SKF 81297, respectively, using [11C]methyl iodide in the presence of N-ethyldiisopropylamine. Both radiotracers were purified using a semi-preparative cation exchange HPLC column. Radiochemical yields of 20-75% were obtained (from [11C]methyl iodide, decay-corrected) with a synthesis time of 30-35 min from EOB. The specific activities were 700-2500 Ci/mmol (25.9-92.5 GBq/mumol) at EOS, and the radiochemical purities were > 99%. Autoradiographic studies showed selective binding for both tracers in rat brain regions rich in D1 receptors such as the caudate-putamen, nucleus accumbens, olfactory tubercles and substantia nigra. [11C]SKF 75670 and [11C]SKF 82957 are thus potential PET radioligands for the functional high-affinity state of D1 receptors.

Changes in regional cytochrome oxidase activity in the fetal, newborn and adult ovine brainstem

Metabolic activity of specific brain regions (e.g. brainstem respiratory centers) may increase during the physiologic adaptations at birth. Since regional activity of cytochrome oxidase is correlated with the level of oxidative metabolism, cytochrome oxidase histochemistry was used to investigate whether there are sustained changes in metabolic activity within specific nuclei of the ovine brainstem during the perinatal period and whether further changes occur in the adult. Histochemistry was performed on 10-microns-thick frozen sections of the perinatal (130 d fetus, 140 d fetus, 8 h newborn and 10 d newborn) and adult ovine brainstem (n = 3 at each age). Computer-assisted image analysis was performed on 20 brainstem regions. A general decreasing trend, interrupted by a tendency for a transient increase at 8 h after birth was observed in most regions analyzed. Statistically significant decreases (P < 0.05) in cytochrome oxidase levels between the perinatal age groups and the adult were found in 7 brainstem nuclei studied: ambiguus, cuneate, inferior olivary, reticularis lateralis, spinal trigeminal, parabrachial and superior olivary nuclei. Within the perinatal period, the nucleus gracilis was the only region to show statistically significant decreases in 140 d fetus and 8 h newborns in all nuclei analyzed, but this change was not statistically significant (P > 0.1). These results indicate that the dramatic changes in physiology and environment at birth do not result in a significant change in the metabolic capacity of brainstem nuclei in the immediate perinatal period. However, more gradual developmental changes are observed in specific brainstem nuclei suggesting a decrease in neuronal activity occurs in these areas during development in the sheep.

Alterations in the brain GABAA/benzodiazepine receptor-chloride ionophore complex in a genetic model of paroxysmal dystonia: a quantitative autoradiographic analysis

Dystonia is a relatively common syndrome of sustained muscle contractions, frequently causing twisting and repetitive movements or abnormal postures. The most frequent type of dystonia is idiopathic generalized dystonia, whose pathophysiology is largely unknown. In this respect, mutant animal strains with inborn dystonia may be helpful to elucidate the pathophysiological defects involved in idiopathic dystonia. The genetically dystonic (dtsz) hamster is an animal model of paroxysmal dystonia that displays attacks of generalized dystonia either spontaneously or in response to mild environmental stimuli. In the present study, a quantitative autoradiographic analysis of ligand binding to different sites of the GABAA/benzodiazepine receptor-chloride ionophore complex was carried out in 123 brain areas from genetically dystonic mutant hamsters and age-matched control hamsters. Animals were killed 2 weeks after their last dystonic attack. Analysis of the GABA-binding site of the receptor complex, using the ligand [3H]muscimol, and the benzodiazepine site labelled with [3H]flunitrazepam revealed no significant alterations in the binding of either ligand in any of the brain regions examined. In contrast, widespread changes were observed in binding densities of [35S]t-butylbicyclophosphorothionate ([35S]t-butylbicyclophosphorothionate), which labels the picrotoxinin site of the GABAA receptor-chloride ionophore complex. Significantly increased [35S]t-butylbicyclophosphorothionate binding was found in several parts of the thalamus, cortex, and hippocampus as well as in the red nucleus, the subthalamic nucleus, and the granular layer of the cerebellum. Since high-affinity [35S]TBPS binding is thought to represent the closed conformation of the GABA-gated chloride ionophore, increased TBPS binding would indicate an impaired GABAergic function. The study is consistent with the concept that dystonia is caused by impaired connections between the basal ganglia, the thalamus, and frontal association areas. The data on increased [35S]TBPS binding are the first evidence implicating alterations in the GABA-gated chloride ion channel function in a movement disorder, i.e. idiopathic generalized dystonia.

Amygdala dopamine levels are markedly elevated after self- but not passive-administration of cocaine

The influence of cocaine on rat brain monoaminergic neurotransmitters (dopamine, serotonin, noradrenaline) and their metabolites, and on binding of [3H]WIN 35,428 and [3H]GBR 12,935 to the dopamine transporter was measured after 4 weeks of cocaine exposure. Cocaine (mean daily dose 9.25 +/- 0.48 mg/kg) was self-administered (responders) or passively received (yoked) during sessions which lasted for 1 h per day. As compared with the controls, mean dopamine and serotonin levels were significantly elevated (+ 107% and + 47%, respectively) in amygdala of responders, but not of yoked rats, sacrificed 1 h after the last cocaine session. Dopamine and metabolite levels were normal in all other brain areas examined, including striatum, nucleus accumbens and medial prefrontal cortex, at both 1 h and 4 weeks withdrawal from cocaine. [3H]WIN 35,428 and [3H]GBR 12,935 binding were unaltered after cocaine exposure. These data provide additional support for the involvement of the amygdala in the acquisition of drug seeking behavior associated with cocaine self-administration.

Dopamine D2 receptors mapped in rat brain with [3H](+)PHNO

Previous work with membrane preparations had demonstrated that the agonist (+)-4-propyl-9-hydroxynaphthoxazine (PHNO) labels the high-affinity state of dopamine D2 receptors with 67-fold selectivity over D1 sites. In this study, quantitative autoradiography was used to examine the binding of [3H](+)PHNO to rat brain sections. Highest binding densities were found in caudate-putamen, accumbens, and olfactory tubercles, as expected, and also in specific layers of the olfactory bulb. In addition, a second group of brain regions, including lateral septum, entorhinal cortex, molecular layer of hippocampus, and several brainstem structures showed low but consistent levels of binding. In all brain regions [3H](+)PHNO binding (2 nM) was completely displaced by 10 microM sulpiride (> 99%). Addition of 150 microM guanilylimidodiphosphate, which normally converts D2 receptors from high to low affinity states, abolished [3H](+)PHNO binding in all brain regions (> 99%), except for the islands of Callejas. This is likely to reflect binding to D3 sites in this area. Omission of preincubation in binding assays decreased [3H](+)PHNO binding in a regionally dependent manner, with strongest effects (22%) seen in high-density areas. These preincubation results confirm that (+)PHNO may have limitations for in vivo imaging studies. On the other hand, [3H](+)PHNO's negligible levels of non-specific binding compared to other agonists and overall selectivity would make it an excellent tool for in vitro autoradiographic monitoring of the high affinity state of D2 receptors.

Decreased muscarinic receptor binding in rat brain after paradoxical sleep deprivation: an autoradiographic study

Previous work demonstrated that paradoxical sleep deprivation (PSD) leads to a decrease in yawning behavior elicited by cholinergic agonists, suggesting that a downregulation of cholinergic muscarinic receptors may occur after PSD. More recent work using intracerebral injections of muscarinic agonists has suggested a critical role for M2 receptors in paradoxical sleep. In this study [3H]AF-DX 384 was used to investigate the effects of PSD on M2-type cholinergic receptors throughout the brain using quantitative autoradiography. After 96 h of paradoxical sleep deprivation, [3H]AF-DX 384 binding was generally reduced throughout the brain, and significantly so in the olfactory tubercle (-20%), n. accumbens (-23%), frontal caudate-putamen (-16%), islands of Callejas (-20%), piriform cortex (-24%), lateral (-26%) and medial (-24%) septum, anteromedial (-19%), ventrolateral (-22%), and lateral geniculate (-15%) nuclei of thalamus, deep layers of the superior colliculus (-15%), entorhinal cortex (-12%) and subiculum (-23%). [3H]AF-DX 384 binding was reduced in pontine structures, but not to a higher degree than in other brain areas. The observed downregulation of M2-type muscarinic receptors after PSD may be causally related to the previously reported decrease in cholinergically induced behaviors after PSD.

Heterogeneous subregional binding patterns of 3H-WIN 35,428 and 3H-GBR 12,935 are differentially regulated by chronic cocaine self-administration

We examined the influence of chronic cocaine exposure, in an unlimited access self-administration paradigm, on density of the dopamine transporter (3H-WIN 35,428 and 3H-GBR 12,935 binding) and concentration of monoamine (dopamine, serotonin, noradrenaline and metabolites) neurotransmitters in rat brain. In normal rodent striatum 3H-WIN 35,428 and 3H-GBR 12,935 binding to the dopamine transporter, although generally similar, showed different subregional rostrocaudal and mediolateral gradients, suggesting that the two ligands might bind to different subtypes or states of the dopamine transporter. Following chronic, unlimited access cocaine self-administration, binding of 3H-WIN 35,428 was significantly elevated in whole nucleus accumbens (+69%, p < 0.001) and striatum (+65%, p < 0.001) on the last day of cocaine exposure ("on-cocaine group"); whereas in the 3 week withdrawn animals ("cocaine-withdrawn group"), levels were either normal (striatum) or reduced (-30%, p < 0.05, nucleus accumbens). Although similar changes in 3H-GBR 12,935 binding were observed, this dopamine transporter ligand showed a smaller and highly subregionally dependent increase in binding in striatal subdivision of the on-cocaine group, but a more marked binding reduction in the cocaine-withdrawn animals. As compared with the controls, mean dopamine levels were reduced in striatum (-15%, p < 0.05) of the on-cocaine group and in nucleus accumbens (-40%, p < 0.05) of the cocaine-withdrawn group. These data provide additional support to the hypothesis that some of the long-term effects of cocaine exposure (drug craving, depression) could be consequent to reduced nucleus accumbens dopamine function. Our data also suggest that dopamine transporter concentration, and perhaps function, might undergo up- or downregulation, either as a direct effect of cocaine, or indirectly as part of a homeostatic response to altered synaptic dopamine levels, and therefore might participate in the neuronal events underlying cocaine-induced behavioral changes.

Intraventricular but not intraparaventricular nucleus metergoline elicits feeding in satiated rats

Previous research has shown that systemic injections of the nonselective serotonin (5-HT) antagonist metergoline (MET) can stimulate feeding in both rats and humans. Five experiments were conducted to determine if this drug would elicit feeding in otherwise satiated rats after direct injections into the brain. In experiment 1, intraventricular infusions of 100 nmol MET produced reliable enhancements of feeding for 1 h compared with control infusions of a 5% tartaric acid (vehicle) solution. In experiment 2, a dose-response study of 0, 50, 100, and 150 nmol MET intraventricularly revealed that both 100 and 150 nmol doses reliably enhanced 1-h feeding, whereas 50 nmol did not. In experiment 3, tests of 90-min locomotor activity and water intake in the absence of food revealed that 100 nmol MET intraventricularly did not modify either behavior compared with vehicle infusions, suggesting a degree of feeding specificity to this effect. In an attempt to determine the site of intraventricular MET effects on feeding, experiment 4 tested 1-h feeding responses after 0, 5, 10, 20, 40, or 60 nmol MET were infused unilaterally into the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus. No reliable feeding was induced at any of these drug doses, although injections of 30 nmol norepinephrine (NE) were effective in doubling food intake. Experiment 5 further showed that bilateral infusions of 50 nmol MET in each PVN (total dose, 100 nmol) were ineffective in altering 1-h feeding. This contrasted markedly to the high potency of 15 nmol NE per site (total dose, 30 nmol), which elicited fivefold greater feeding than control infusions.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Regional thyroid hormone levels in rat brain

Levels of T4 and T3 were measured in half-brain and seven brain regions. Although thyroid hormones were distributed throughout the brain, T4 levels were highest in cerebellum and thalamus. The highest T3 levels were observed in the thalamus and lowest levels were found in olfactory bulb, hypothalamus, and amygdala.