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Duthoo E, De Reu K, Leroy F, Weckx S, Heyndrickx M, Rasschaert G. To culture or not to culture: careful assessment of metabarcoding data is necessary when evaluating the microbiota of a modified-atmosphere-packaged vegetarian meat alternative throughout its shelf-life period. BMC Microbiol 2022; 22:34. [PMID: 35078415 PMCID: PMC8788083 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-022-02446-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Background
As the increased consumption of ready-to-eat meat alternatives is a fairly recent trend, little is known about the composition and dynamics of the microbiota present on such products. Such information is nonetheless valuable in view of spoilage and food safety prevention. Even though refrigeration and modified-atmosphere-packaging (MAP) can extend the shelf-life period, microbial spoilage can still occur in these products. In the present study, the microbiota of a vegetarian alternative to poultry-based charcuterie was investigated during storage, contrasting the use of a culture-dependent method to a culture-independent metagenetic method.
Results
The former revealed that lactic acid bacteria (LAB) were the most abundant microbial group, specifically at the end of the shelf-life period, whereby Latilactobacillus sakei was the most abundant species. Metabarcoding analysis, in contrast, revealed that DNA of Xanthomonas was most prominently present, which likely was an artifact due to the presence of xanthan gum as an ingredient, followed by Streptococcus and Weissella.
Conclusions
Taken together, these results indicated that Lb. sakei was likely the most prominent specific spoilage organisms (SSO) and, additionally, that the use of metagenetic analysis needs to be interpreted with care in this specific type of product. In order to improve the performance of metagenetics in food samples with a high DNA matrix but a low bacterial DNA load, selective depletion techniques for matrix DNA could be explored.
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Zeng H, De Reu K, Gabriël S, Mattheus W, De Zutter L, Rasschaert G. Salmonella prevalence and persistence in industrialized poultry slaughterhouses. Poult Sci 2021; 100:100991. [PMID: 33610890 PMCID: PMC7905466 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2021.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2020] [Revised: 01/05/2021] [Accepted: 01/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Salmonella contamination sources and transmission routes were studied in 5 Belgian poultry slaughterhouses. Samples from the slaughter and cutting line after cleaning and disinfection were collected, as well as neck skin samples and thighs during slaughter of the first flock. In total, 680 swab and water samples were taken from the slaughter line before slaughter. In all slaughterhouses, Salmonella was notwithstanding cleaning and disinfection still isolated from the slaughter line before start of activities. The prevalence of Salmonella in the plucking area was 10.4% (38/365) (hanging area: 5.0%, scalding tank: 5.8%, plucking machine: 17.0%); in the evisceration room, 1.5% (2/138); and in the cutting area, 2.0% (3/149). No Salmonella (0/28) was found in samples from the chilling line. On neck skin samples taken from the various lines, Salmonella prevalence was 16.1% (48/299) after plucking, 16.0% (48/300) after evisceration, 23.3% (70/300) after chilling; on thighs, prevalence was 10.0% (24/240). Nine Salmonella serotypes were identified of which Salmonella Infantis was the most common serovar (53.8%), especially in slaughterhouse A. Two contamination causes were identified; first, although all flocks had an official Salmonella negative status, this was in one case incorrect and led to an enormous contamination of the neck skins of the flock and the slaughterline (i.e., cooling water). Second, molecular typing revealed cross-contamination from flocks slaughtered 1 d before sampling. Salmonella was apparently not always eliminated by the cleaning and disinfection process and able to contaminate the carcasses of the first slaughtered flock. In conclusion, the results of this study provided practical insights for poultry production to further improve their Salmonella control, for example, Salmonella status determination closer to the slaughter date, to adapt cleaning and disinfection protocols especially for critical machinery and better hygienic designed equipment.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Zeng
- Flanders Research Institute For Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), B-9090 Melle, Belgium; Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - K De Reu
- Flanders Research Institute For Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), B-9090 Melle, Belgium
| | - S Gabriël
- Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - W Mattheus
- Sciensano, Infectious Diseases in Humans, Bacterial Diseases, B-1180 Brussels, Belgium
| | - L De Zutter
- Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - G Rasschaert
- Flanders Research Institute For Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), B-9090 Melle, Belgium.
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Maertens H, Demeyere K, De Reu K, Dewulf J, Vanhauteghem D, Van Coillie E, Meyer E. Effect of subinhibitory exposure to quaternary ammonium compounds on the ciprofloxacin susceptibility of Escherichia coli strains in animal husbandry. BMC Microbiol 2020; 20:155. [PMID: 32527225 PMCID: PMC7291530 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-020-01818-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2020] [Accepted: 05/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Quaternary ammonium compound based disinfectants are commonly used in pig and poultry husbandry to maintain farm hygiene. However, studies have shown that subinhibitory concentrations of these disinfectants may increase antibiotic resistance. Investigation of antibiotic susceptibility is usually assessed via the microbroth dilution method, although this conventional culture-based technique only provides information on the bacteriostatic activity of an antimicrobial agent. Therefore, experiments were performed to investigate the effect of prior benzalkonium chloride (BKC) exposure on the viability of subsequent ciprofloxacin (CIP) treated Escherichia coli. RESULTS Following CIP treatment, bacterial cell counts were significantly higher after exposure to a subinhibitory BKC concentration than without BKC exposure. The flow cytometric results suggested a BKC-dependent onset of membrane damage and loss of membrane potential. CONCLUSION Our results indicate a lower bactericidal effect of CIP treatment on BKC-exposed E. coli isolates compared to unexposed E. coli isolates.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Maertens
- Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090, Melle, Belgium
| | - K Demeyere
- Veterinary Biochemistry Unit, Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - K De Reu
- Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090, Melle, Belgium
| | - J Dewulf
- Veterinary Epidemiology Unit, Department of Reproduction, Obstetrics and Herd Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - D Vanhauteghem
- Veterinary Biochemistry Unit, Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - E Van Coillie
- Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090, Melle, Belgium
| | - E Meyer
- Veterinary Biochemistry Unit, Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820, Merelbeke, Belgium.
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Maertens H, Van Coillie E, Millet S, Van Weyenberg S, Sleeckx N, Meyer E, Zoons J, Dewulf J, De Reu K. Repeated disinfectant use in broiler houses and pig nursery units does not affect disinfectant and antibiotic susceptibility in Escherichia coli field isolates. BMC Vet Res 2020; 16:140. [PMID: 32423466 PMCID: PMC7236461 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-020-02342-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2019] [Accepted: 04/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Disinfectants are frequently used in animal production to reduce or eliminate the load of infectious agents and parasites in buildings and equipment associated with the housing or transportation of animals. There are growing concerns that the use of disinfectants would select for resistance to antibiotics and disinfectants. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of repeated use of different disinfectants on the disinfectant and antibiotic susceptibility under practical conditions in a broiler and pig pilot farm. Therefore, the susceptibility of Escherichia coli (E. coli) to 14 antibiotics and 4 disinfectants was monitored over a one-year period. RESULTS High (20-50%) to very high (> 50%) resistance levels for ampicillin, sulfamethoxazole, trimethoprim and tetracycline were observed in both animal production types. Disinfectant susceptibility did not change over time and did not depend on the used disinfection product. Compared to in-use concentrations of formaldehyde, benzalkoniumchloride and a peracetic acid - hydrogen peroxide formulation, all E. coli strains remained susceptible indicating that the use of disinfectants did not select for disinfectant resistance. Moreover, no association could be found between the use of disinfectants and antibiotic resistance. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that repeated use of disinfectants in agricultural environments does not select for antibiotic resistance nor does it reduce disinfectant susceptibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Maertens
- Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090, Melle, Belgium
| | - E Van Coillie
- Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090, Melle, Belgium
| | - S Millet
- Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090, Melle, Belgium
| | - S Van Weyenberg
- Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090, Melle, Belgium
| | - N Sleeckx
- Experimental Poultry Center (EPC), Poiel 77, 2440, Geel, Belgium
| | - E Meyer
- Veterinary Biochemistry Unit, Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - J Zoons
- Experimental Poultry Center (EPC), Poiel 77, 2440, Geel, Belgium
| | - J Dewulf
- Veterinary Epidemiology Unit, Department of Reproduction, Obstetrics and Herd Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - K De Reu
- Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090, Melle, Belgium.
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Demaître N, Van Damme I, De Zutter L, Geeraerd AH, Rasschaert G, De Reu K. Occurrence, distribution and diversity of Listeria monocytogenes contamination on beef and pig carcasses after slaughter. Meat Sci 2020; 169:108177. [PMID: 32544760 DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2020.108177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2020] [Revised: 04/27/2020] [Accepted: 05/04/2020] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
In this study we investigated the prevalence and location of Listeria monocytogenes and hygiene indicator bacteria on beef and pig carcasses. Carcasses were sampled after slaughter and before cooling at eight and nine sites on the carcass, respectively. For each sample, detection and enumeration of Listeria was performed, as well as the enumeration of Total Aerobic Counts (TAC) and Enterobacteriaceae. The L. monocytogenes isolates were also typed to determine pulsotypes and clonal complexes (CC). L. monocytogenes was detected on 46% [95% CI: 35-56%] of beef and 22% [95% CI: 11-32%] of pig carcasses. Contamination levels at the different carcass sites differed considerably between beef and pigs. Genetic typing of strains suggests that carcass contamination originates from both incoming animals with transmission during slaughter practices as well as persistent (CC9) contamination from the slaughterhouse environment. These findings can be used to understand the complexity of introduction and persistence of this pathogen in slaughter facilities. Accurate correlation of L. monocytogenes presence proved unfeasible with any of the tested hygiene indicator bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Demaître
- Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090 Melle, Belgium
| | - I Van Damme
- Ghent University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - L De Zutter
- Ghent University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - A H Geeraerd
- KU Leuven, Department of Biosystems (BIOSYST), Division MeBioS, Willem de Croylaan 42, box 2428, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - G Rasschaert
- Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090 Melle, Belgium
| | - K De Reu
- Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090 Melle, Belgium.
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Hennekinne JA, Ostyn A, Guillier F, Gohier M, Messio S, Dragacci S, Krys S, Lombard B, Bauer MCC, Alves P, Bauer MC, Blanco-Vidal C, Desfargues C, De Reu K, Eckner K, Economides C, Ferrini AM, Gaillard N, Genot P, Gornard S, Guiliani L, Hummerjohann J, In’t Velt P, Jacobs-Reistma W, Ladstatter J, Montourcy G, Pires-Gomes C, Pittet JL, Rola J, Rubert E, Srete-Lancz Z. Interlaboratory Validation of the Vidas SET2 Kit for Detection of Staphylococcal Enterotoxins in Milk Products. J AOAC Int 2019. [DOI: 10.1093/jaoac/90.3.756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
An earlier intralaboratory validation study based on the EN ISO 16140 Standard conducted by the Community Reference Laboratory for coagulase-positive staphylococci including Staphylocococcus aureus showed that, after an extraction step using dialysis concentration, the Vidas SET2 detection kit could be used to screen staphylococcal enterotoxins in milk and milk products. In order to fully validate Vidas SET2, an interlaboratory study was organized. Six freeze-dried samples and 3 ready-to-use concentrated extracts were analyzed by 21 laboratories according to the method, including a detection with Vidas SET2. Results did not show false-positive or -negative results. Accordance and concordance parameters were equal to 100%, corresponding to a concordance odds ratio of 1. This interlaboratory study confirmed the satisfactory outcome of the preliminary tests and of the intralaboratory study performed previously. The Vidas SET2 detection kit can be used as a method for the detection of staphylococcal enterotoxins in milk and milk products as well as the Transia Plate SET detection kit in the European screening method for official control purposes, after an extraction step followed by dialysis concentration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacques-Antoine Hennekinne
- French Agency for Food Safety, Laboratory for Study and Research on Quality of Food and on Food Processes (AFSSA-LERQAP), Toxins, Organic Pollutants, and Pesticides Unit, National and Community Reference Laboratory for Coagulase-Positive Staphylococci, Including Staphylococccus aureus and Their Toxins, 23 Ave du Gnral De Gaulle, 94706 Maisons-Alfort Cedex, France
| | - Annick Ostyn
- French Agency for Food Safety, Laboratory for Study and Research on Quality of Food and on Food Processes (AFSSA-LERQAP), Toxins, Organic Pollutants, and Pesticides Unit, National and Community Reference Laboratory for Coagulase-Positive Staphylococci, Including Staphylococccus aureus and Their Toxins, 23 Ave du Gnral De Gaulle, 94706 Maisons-Alfort Cedex, France
| | - Florence Guillier
- French Agency for Food Safety, Laboratory for Study and Research on Quality of Food and on Food Processes (AFSSA-LERQAP), Toxins, Organic Pollutants, and Pesticides Unit, National and Community Reference Laboratory for Coagulase-Positive Staphylococci, Including Staphylococccus aureus and Their Toxins, 23 Ave du Gnral De Gaulle, 94706 Maisons-Alfort Cedex, France
| | - Martine Gohier
- French Agency for Food Safety, Laboratory for Study and Research on Quality of Food and on Food Processes (AFSSA-LERQAP), Toxins, Organic Pollutants, and Pesticides Unit, National and Community Reference Laboratory for Coagulase-Positive Staphylococci, Including Staphylococccus aureus and Their Toxins, 23 Ave du Gnral De Gaulle, 94706 Maisons-Alfort Cedex, France
| | - Sabine Messio
- French Agency for Food Safety, Laboratory for Study and Research on Quality of Food and on Food Processes (AFSSA-LERQAP), Toxins, Organic Pollutants, and Pesticides Unit, National and Community Reference Laboratory for Coagulase-Positive Staphylococci, Including Staphylococccus aureus and Their Toxins, 23 Ave du Gnral De Gaulle, 94706 Maisons-Alfort Cedex, France
| | - Sylviane Dragacci
- French Agency for Food Safety, Laboratory for Study and Research on Quality of Food and on Food Processes (AFSSA-LERQAP), Toxins, Organic Pollutants, and Pesticides Unit, National and Community Reference Laboratory for Coagulase-Positive Staphylococci, Including Staphylococccus aureus and Their Toxins, 23 Ave du Gnral De Gaulle, 94706 Maisons-Alfort Cedex, France
| | - Sophie Krys
- French Agency for Food Safety, Laboratory for Study and Research on Quality of Food and on Food Processes (AFSSA-LERQAP), Toxins, Organic Pollutants, and Pesticides Unit, National and Community Reference Laboratory for Coagulase-Positive Staphylococci, Including Staphylococccus aureus and Their Toxins, 23 Ave du Gnral De Gaulle, 94706 Maisons-Alfort Cedex, France
| | - Bertrand Lombard
- French Agency for Food Safety, Laboratory for Study and Research on Quality of Food and on Food Processes (AFSSA-LERQAP), Toxins, Organic Pollutants, and Pesticides Unit, National and Community Reference Laboratory for Coagulase-Positive Staphylococci, Including Staphylococccus aureus and Their Toxins, 23 Ave du Gnral De Gaulle, 94706 Maisons-Alfort Cedex, France
| | - M C C Bauer
- French Agency for Food Safety, Laboratory for Study and Research on Quality of Food and on Food Processes (AFSSA-LERQAP), Toxins, Organic Pollutants, and Pesticides Unit, National and Community Reference Laboratory for Coagulase-Positive Staphylococci, Including Staphylococccus aureus and Their Toxins, 23 Ave du Gnral De Gaulle, 94706 Maisons-Alfort Cedex, France
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Maertens H, De Reu K, Meyer E, Van Weyenberg S, Dewulf J, Van Coillie E. Exposure of ciprofloxacin-resistant Escherichia coli broiler isolates to subinhibitory concentrations of a quaternary ammonium compound does not increase antibiotic resistance gene transfer. Poult Sci 2019; 98:2972-2976. [PMID: 30993325 DOI: 10.3382/ps/pez185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2018] [Accepted: 03/19/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Resistance to antibiotics threatens to become a worldwide health problem. An important attributing phenomenon in this context is that pathogens can acquire antibiotic resistance genes through conjugative transfer of plasmids. To prevent bacterial infections in agricultural settings, the use of veterinary hygiene products, such as disinfectants, has gained popularity and questions have been raised about their contribution to such spreading of antibiotic resistance. Therefore, this study investigated the effect of subinhibitory concentrations of benzalkoniumchloride (BKC), a quaternary ammonium compound (QAC), on the conjugative transfer of antibiotic resistance genes. Five Escherichia coli field strains originating from broiler chickens and with known transferable plasmid-mediated ciprofloxacin resistance were exposed to subinhibitory BKC concentrations: 1/3, 1/10 and 1/30 of the minimum bactericidal concentration. Antibiotic resistance transfer was assessed by liquid mating for 4 h at 25°C using E. coli K12 MG1655 as recipient strain. The transfer ratio was calculated as the number of transconjugants divided by the number of recipients. Without exposure to BKC, the strains showed a ciprofloxacin resistance transfer ratio ranging from 10-4 to 10-7. No significant effect of exposure to subinhibitory concentrations of BKC was observed on this transfer ratio.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Maertens
- Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090 Melle, Belgium
| | - K De Reu
- Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090 Melle, Belgium
| | - E Meyer
- Veterinary Biochemistry Unit, Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - S Van Weyenberg
- Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090 Melle, Belgium
| | - J Dewulf
- Veterinary Epidemiology Unit, Department of Reproduction, Obstetrics and Herd Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - E Van Coillie
- Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090 Melle, Belgium
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Maertens H, De Reu K, Van Weyenberg S, Van Coillie E, Meyer E, Van Meirhaeghe H, Van Immerseel F, Vandenbroucke V, Vanrobaeys M, Dewulf J. Evaluation of the hygienogram scores and related data obtained after cleaning and disinfection of poultry houses in Flanders during the period 2007 to 2014. Poult Sci 2018; 97:620-627. [PMID: 29211907 DOI: 10.3382/ps/pex327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2017] [Accepted: 10/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cleaning and disinfection (C&D) of poultry houses is an essential aspect in farm hygiene management. Adequate performance of the different steps of a C&D protocol and the use of suitable products are key to prevent and control zoonoses and animal diseases. Hygiene monitoring on total aerobic flora through sampling with agar contact plates at different locations of the poultry house results in a hygienogram score that is used to evaluate the proper execution of C&D.This study analyzed the hygienogram scores of 19,739 poultry flocks in Flanders after C&D. Data relating to the C&D protocol, i.e., year, season, husbandry system, production type, cleaning product, sampler, active components of the disinfectant, disinfection time, disinfection temperature, and disinfection responsible, were collected.The average hygienogram score decreased significantly over time, suggesting a general improvement between 2007 and 2014. Differences in scores were found among the husbandry systems, with the barn/aviary system having a significantly better hygienogram score compared to the floor house, furnished cage, and battery. Significantly better scores also were found when a cleaning product was used in the C&D protocol. Disinfection with a peracetic acid and hydrogen peroxide combination or formaldehyde gave the best scores. In addition, C&D protocols using ≥2 different disinfectants showed improved results compared to the use of one single disinfectant. Finally, disinfection applied by a specialist contractor resulted in a better score compared to disinfection by the farmer.In conclusion, analysis of the hygienogram scores and related data allowed identifying several factors, resulting in an improvement, which may reduce the total bacterial load in poultry stables and, consequently, the number of zoonotic and pathogenic micro-organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Maertens
- Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090 Melle, Belgium
| | - K De Reu
- Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090 Melle, Belgium
| | - S Van Weyenberg
- Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090 Melle, Belgium
| | - E Van Coillie
- Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090 Melle, Belgium
| | - E Meyer
- Veterinary Biochemistry Unit, Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | | | - F Van Immerseel
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Poultry Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - V Vandenbroucke
- Animal Health Care Flanders (DGZ), Industrielaan 29, 8820 Torhout, Belgium
| | - M Vanrobaeys
- Animal Health Care Flanders (DGZ), Industrielaan 29, 8820 Torhout, Belgium
| | - J Dewulf
- Veterinary Epidemiology Unit, Department of Reproduction, Obstetrics and Herd Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
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9
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Luyckx K, Van Coillie E, Dewulf J, Van Weyenberg S, Herman L, Zoons J, Vervaet E, Heyndrickx M, De Reu K. Identification and biocide susceptibility of dominant bacteria after cleaning and disinfection of broiler houses. Poult Sci 2016; 96:938-949. [PMID: 28158762 DOI: 10.3382/ps/pew355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2016] [Accepted: 08/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- K Luyckx
- Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090 Melle, Belgium
| | - E Van Coillie
- Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090 Melle, Belgium
| | - J Dewulf
- Veterinary Epidemiology Unit, Department of Reproduction, Obstetrics and Herd Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - S Van Weyenberg
- Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090 Melle, Belgium
| | - L Herman
- Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090 Melle, Belgium
| | - J Zoons
- Experimental Poultry Center (EPC), Geel, Belgium
| | - E Vervaet
- Experimental Poultry Center (EPC), Geel, Belgium
| | | | - K De Reu
- Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090 Melle, Belgium
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10
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Luyckx K, Millet S, Van Weyenberg S, Herman L, Heyndrickx M, Dewulf J, De Reu K. A 10-day vacancy period after cleaning and disinfection has no effect on the bacterial load in pig nursery units. BMC Vet Res 2016; 12:236. [PMID: 27760542 PMCID: PMC5069936 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-016-0850-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2016] [Accepted: 09/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Biosecurity measures such as cleaning, disinfection and a vacancy period between production cycles on pig farms are essential to prevent disease outbreaks. No studies have tested the effect of a longer vacancy period on bacterial load in nursery units. METHODS The present study evaluated the effect of a 10-day vacancy period in pig nursery units on total aerobic flora, Enterococcus spp., Escherichia coli, faecal coliforms and methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Three vacancy periods of 10 days were monitored, each time applied in 3 units. The microbiological load was measured before disinfection and at 1, 4, 7 and 10 days after disinfection. RESULTS No significant decrease or increase in E. coli, faecal coliforms, MRSA and Enterococcus spp. was noticed. Total aerobic flora counts were the lowest on day 4 after disinfection (i.e. 4.07 log CFU/625 cm2) (P < 0.05), but the difference with other sampling moments was limited (i.e. 0.6 log CFU/625 cm2) and therefore negligible. Furthermore, this observation on day 4 was not confirmed for the other microbiological parameters. After disinfection, drinking nipples were still mostly contaminated with total aerobic flora (i.e. 5.32 log CFU/625 cm2) and Enterococcus spp. (i.e. 95 % of the samples were positive) (P < 0.01); the feeding troughs were the cleanest location (total aerobic flora: 3.53 log CFU/625 cm2 and Enterococcus spp.: 50 % positive samples) (P < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS This study indicates that prolonging the vacancy period in nursery units to 10 days after disinfection with no extra biosecurity measures has no impact on the environmental load of total aerobic flora, E. coli, faecal coliforms, MRSA and Enterococcus spp..
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Affiliation(s)
- K Luyckx
- Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - S Millet
- Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - S Van Weyenberg
- Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - L Herman
- Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - M Heyndrickx
- Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Merelbeke, Belgium
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Poultry Diseases, Ghent University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - J Dewulf
- Veterinary Epidemiology Unit, Department of Reproduction, Obstetrics and Herd Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - K De Reu
- Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Merelbeke, Belgium.
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11
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Luyckx K, Millet S, Van Weyenberg S, Herman L, Heyndrickx M, Dewulf J, De Reu K. Comparison of competitive exclusion with classical cleaning and disinfection on bacterial load in pig nursery units. BMC Vet Res 2016; 12:189. [PMID: 27600833 PMCID: PMC5013629 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-016-0810-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2016] [Accepted: 08/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Colonisation of the environment of nursery units by pathogenic micro-organisms is an important factor in the persistence and spread of endemic diseases in pigs and zoonotic pathogens. These pathogens are generally controlled by the use of antibiotics and disinfectants. Since an increasing resistance against these measures has been reported in recent years, methods such as competitive exclusion (CE) are promoted as promising alternatives. Results This study showed that the infection pressure in CE units after microbial cleaning was not reduced to the same degree as in control units. Despite sufficient administration of probiotic-type spores, the analysed bacteria did not decrease in number after 3 production rounds in CE units, indicating no competitive exclusion. In addition, no differences in feed conversion were found between piglets raised in CE and control units in our study. Also, no differences in faecal consistency (indicator for enteric diseases) was noticed. Conclusion These results indicate that the CE protocol is not a valuable alternative for classical C&D.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Luyckx
- Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Melle, Belgium
| | - S Millet
- Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Animal Sciences Unit, Melle, Belgium
| | - S Van Weyenberg
- Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Melle, Belgium
| | - L Herman
- Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Melle, Belgium
| | - M Heyndrickx
- Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Melle, Belgium.,Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Poultry Diseases, Ghent University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - J Dewulf
- Veterinary Epidemiology Unit, Department of Reproduction, Obstetrics and Herd Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - K De Reu
- Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Melle, Belgium.
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12
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Rasschaert G, De Reu K, Heyndrickx M, Herman L. Case report of Salmonella cross-contamination in a food laboratory. BMC Res Notes 2016; 9:156. [PMID: 26965050 PMCID: PMC4787000 DOI: 10.1186/s13104-016-1969-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2015] [Accepted: 02/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background This paper describes a case of Salmonella cross-contamination in a food laboratory. In 2012, chocolate bars shipped from Belgium to the USA were prevented from entering the USA because a Salmonella Rissen strain had been isolated from one of the chocolate bars in a Belgian food laboratory. However, a retrospective study of the Salmonella isolates sent from the laboratory to the Belgian National Reference Laboratory for Salmonella revealed that 7 weeks prior, a Salmonella Rissen strain has been isolated from fish meal in the same food laboratory. The chocolate bars were not expected to be contaminated with Salmonella because the ingredients all tested negative during the production process. Furthermore, because Salmonella Rissen is only rarely isolated from food, it was hypothesized that the two Salmonella Rissen isolates belonged to the same strain and that the second isolation event in this laboratory was caused by cross-contamination. To confirm this hypothesis, both Salmonella Rissen isolates were fingerprinted using different molecular techniques. To evaluate the discriminatory power of the techniques used, 11 other Salmonella Rissen isolates from different origins were included in the comparison. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, repetitive element palindromic PCR and three random amplified polymorphic DNA PCR assays were used. Results Repetitive element palindromic PCR and random amplified polymorphic DNA PCR assays were insufficiently discriminatory, whereas pulsed-field gel electrophoresis using the combination of two restriction enzymes showed sufficient discrimination to confirm the hypothesis. Conclusions Although cross-contamination in food laboratories are rarely reported, cross-contamination can always occur. Laboratories should therefore always be aware of the possibility of cross-contamination, especially when enrichment is used in the microbiological analysis. Furthermore, it is advised that results showing isolates of the same serotype isolated in a short time frame from unrelated food products should be interpreted carefully and should be confirmed with additional strain typing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geertrui Rasschaert
- Technology and Food Science Unit, Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090, Melle, Belgium.
| | - K De Reu
- Technology and Food Science Unit, Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090, Melle, Belgium
| | - M Heyndrickx
- Technology and Food Science Unit, Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090, Melle, Belgium.,Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Poultry Diseases, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - L Herman
- Technology and Food Science Unit, Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090, Melle, Belgium
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13
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Luyckx K, Van Weyenberg S, Dewulf J, Herman L, Zoons J, Vervaet E, Heyndrickx M, De Reu K. On-farm comparisons of different cleaning protocols in broiler houses. Poult Sci 2015; 94:1986-93. [DOI: 10.3382/ps/pev143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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14
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Ahmed B, De Boeck C, Dumont A, Cox E, De Reu K, Vanrompay D. First Experimental Evidence for the Transmission of Chlamydia psittaci in Poultry through Eggshell Penetration. Transbound Emerg Dis 2015; 64:167-170. [PMID: 25882831 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.12358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Eggshell penetration by pathogens is considered a potential route for their transmission in poultry flocks. Additionally, in case of zoonotic pathogens, contact with infected eggs or their consumption can result in human infection. Chlamydia psittaci is a zoonotic bacterium that causes a respiratory disease in poultry and humans. In this study, we provide an experimental evidence for eggshell penetration by C. psittaci. Additionally, we show that after eggshell penetration, C. psittaci could eventually infect the growing embryo. Our findings portend the potential of horizontal trans-shell transmission as a possible route for the spread of C. psittaci infection in poultry flocks. Considering that horizontal transmission of pathogens via eggs mainly occurs in hatcheries and hatching cabinets, we suggest the latter as critical control points in the transmission of C. psittaci to hatching chicks and broilers, as well as to the hatchery workers and consumers of table eggs.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Ahmed
- Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Laboratory of Immunology and animal Biotechnology, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium.,Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt
| | - C De Boeck
- Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Laboratory of Immunology and animal Biotechnology, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
| | - A Dumont
- Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Laboratory of Immunology and animal Biotechnology, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
| | - E Cox
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Laboratory of Immunology, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - K De Reu
- Technology and Food Science Unit, Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Melle, Belgium
| | - D Vanrompay
- Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Laboratory of Immunology and animal Biotechnology, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
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15
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Luyckx K, Dewulf J, Van Weyenberg S, Herman L, Zoons J, Vervaet E, Heyndrickx M, De Reu K. Comparison of sampling procedures and microbiological and non-microbiological parameters to evaluate cleaning and disinfection in broiler houses. Poult Sci 2015; 94:740-9. [PMID: 25681611 DOI: 10.3382/ps/pev019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cleaning and disinfection of the broiler stable environment is an essential part of farm hygiene management. Adequate cleaning and disinfection is essential for prevention and control of animal diseases and zoonoses. The goal of this study was to shed light on the dynamics of microbiological and non-microbiological parameters during the successive steps of cleaning and disinfection and to select the most suitable sampling methods and parameters to evaluate cleaning and disinfection in broiler houses. The effectiveness of cleaning and disinfection protocols was measured in six broiler houses on two farms through visual inspection, adenosine triphosphate hygiene monitoring and microbiological analyses. Samples were taken at three time points: 1) before cleaning, 2) after cleaning, and 3) after disinfection. Before cleaning and after disinfection, air samples were taken in addition to agar contact plates and swab samples taken from various sampling points for enumeration of total aerobic flora, Enterococcus spp., and Escherichia coli and the detection of E. coli and Salmonella. After cleaning, air samples, swab samples, and adenosine triphosphate swabs were taken and a visual score was also assigned for each sampling point. The mean total aerobic flora determined by swab samples decreased from 7.7±1.4 to 5.7±1.2 log CFU/625 cm2 after cleaning and to 4.2±1.6 log CFU/625 cm2 after disinfection. Agar contact plates were used as the standard for evaluating cleaning and disinfection, but in this study they were found to be less suitable than swabs for enumeration. In addition to measuring total aerobic flora, Enterococcus spp. seemed to be a better hygiene indicator to evaluate cleaning and disinfection protocols than E. coli. All stables were Salmonella negative, but the detection of its indicator organism E. coli provided additional information for evaluating cleaning and disinfection protocols. Adenosine triphosphate analyses gave additional information about the hygiene level of the different sampling points.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Luyckx
- Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090 Melle, Belgium
| | - J Dewulf
- Veterinary Epidemiology Unit, Department of Reproduction, Obstetrics and Herd Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - S Van Weyenberg
- Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090 Melle, Belgium
| | - L Herman
- Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090 Melle, Belgium
| | - J Zoons
- Provincial Centre for Applied Poultry Research of the Province of Antwerp, Geel, Belgium
| | - E Vervaet
- Provincial Centre for Applied Poultry Research of the Province of Antwerp, Geel, Belgium
| | - M Heyndrickx
- Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090 Melle, Belgium Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Poultry Diseases, Ghent University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - K De Reu
- Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090 Melle, Belgium
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16
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Dewaele I, Heyndrickx M, Rasschaert G, Bertrand S, Wildemauwe C, Wattiau P, Imberechts H, Herman L, Ducatelle R, Van Weyenberg S, De Reu K. Phage and MLVA Typing ofSalmonellaEnteritidis Isolated from Layers and Humans in Belgium from 2000-2010, A Period in which Vaccination of Laying Hens was Introduced. Zoonoses Public Health 2013; 61:398-404. [DOI: 10.1111/zph.12084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2012] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- I. Dewaele
- Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO); Technology and Food Science Unit; Melle Belgium
| | - M. Heyndrickx
- Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO); Technology and Food Science Unit; Melle Belgium
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Poultry Diseases; Ghent University; Merelbeke Belgium
| | - G. Rasschaert
- Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO); Technology and Food Science Unit; Melle Belgium
| | - S. Bertrand
- National Reference Centre for Salmonella and Shigella; Bacterial Diseases Division; Scientific Institute of Public Health (IPH); Brussels Belgium
| | - C. Wildemauwe
- National Reference Centre for Salmonella and Shigella; Bacterial Diseases Division; Scientific Institute of Public Health (IPH); Brussels Belgium
| | - P. Wattiau
- Veterinary and Agrochemical Research Centre (CODA-CERVA); Brussels Belgium
| | - H. Imberechts
- Veterinary and Agrochemical Research Centre (CODA-CERVA); Brussels Belgium
| | - L. Herman
- Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO); Technology and Food Science Unit; Melle Belgium
| | - R. Ducatelle
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Poultry Diseases; Ghent University; Merelbeke Belgium
| | - S. Van Weyenberg
- Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO); Technology and Food Science Unit; Melle Belgium
| | - K. De Reu
- Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO); Technology and Food Science Unit; Melle Belgium
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17
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Dewaele I, Rasschaert G, Wildemauwe C, Van Meirhaeghe H, Vanrobaeys M, De Graef E, Herman L, Ducatelle R, Heyndrickx M, De Reu K. Polyphasic characterization of Salmonella Enteritidis isolates on persistently contaminated layer farms during the implementation of a national control program with obligatory vaccination: A longitudinal study. Poult Sci 2012; 91:2727-35. [DOI: 10.3382/ps.2012-02218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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18
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Joris MA, Vanrompay D, Verstraete K, De Reu K, De Zutter L. Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli with particular attention to the German outbreak strain O104:H4. VLAAMS DIERGEN TIJDS 2012. [DOI: 10.21825/vdt.v81i1.18371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
This review deals with the epidemiology and ecology of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC), a subset of the verocytotoxigenic Escherichia coli (VTEC), and subsequently discusses its public health concern. Attention is also given to the outbreak strain O104:H4, which has been isolated as causative agent of the second largest outbreak of the hemolytic uremic syndrome worldwide, which started in Germany in May 2011. This outbreak strain is not an EHEC as such but possesses an unusual combination of EHEC and enteroaggregative E. coli (EAggEC) virulence properties.
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Dewaele I, Van Meirhaeghe H, Rasschaert G, Vanrobaeys M, De Graef E, Herman L, Ducatelle R, Heyndrickx M, De Reu K. Persistent Salmonella Enteritidis environmental contamination on layer farms in the context of an implemented national control program with obligatory vaccination. Poult Sci 2012; 91:282-91. [DOI: 10.3382/ps.2011-01673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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20
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Leleu S, Messens W, De Reu K, De Preter S, Herman L, Heyndrickx M, De Baerdemaeker J, Michiels CW, Bain M. Effect of egg washing on the cuticle quality of brown and white table eggs. J Food Prot 2011; 74:1649-54. [PMID: 22004811 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-11-013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Egg washing is currently not permitted within the European Union, with few exceptions. This is mainly because there are concerns that cuticle damage could occur during or after the washing process, as a result of a suboptimal operation. In this study, the cuticle coverage levels of 400 washed or unwashed eggs, derived from either a brown or a white egg-laying flock at the end of lay, were compared. The eggs from older hens inherently have poorer cuticle coverage and as a result arguably constitute a greater risk to consumer safety if they are then washed. Thus, the effects of the washing procedure used in this study on cuticle quality were tested under the worst-case scenario. A standard Swedish egg washing process was used. The cuticle coverage of the eggs was assessed by a colorimeter by quantifying the color difference before and after staining with Tartrazine and Green S. The cuticle of an additional 30 eggs from each of the four groups was then visually assessed by scanning electron microscopy. The staining characteristics of the cuticle varied greatly within each group of eggs and showed that the washing process did not lead to cuticle damage. Scanning electron microscopy confirmed that there was no irreversible damage to the cuticle of the washed eggs and that it was not possible to correctly assign the treatment (washed or not) based on a visual assessment. In conclusion, no evidence could be found to suggest that the washing procedure used in this investigation irreversibly changed the quality of the cuticle.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Leleu
- Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090 Melle, Belgium.
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21
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Verstraete K, Robyn J, Del-Favero J, De Rijk P, Joris MA, Herman L, Heyndrickx M, De Zutter L, De Reu K. Evaluation of a multiplex-PCR detection in combination with an isolation method for STEC O26, O103, O111, O145 and sorbitol fermenting O157 in food. Food Microbiol 2011; 29:49-55. [PMID: 22029918 DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2011.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2011] [Revised: 08/11/2011] [Accepted: 08/11/2011] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the current study was to evaluate a multiplex PCR (mPCR) detection test combined with the evaluation of a previously described isolation method. Minced beef, raw-milk cheese and sprouted seed samples were inoculated with low amounts (7-58 cfu 25 g(-1)) of non-stressed, cold-stressed or freeze-stressed clinical STEC strains, including serogroups O26, O103, O111, O145, sorbitol fermenting (SF) O157 and non-sorbitol fermenting (NSF) O157. The inoculated pathogen was detected using a 24 h-enrichment followed by an mPCR protocol, and in parallel isolated using an enrichment step of 6 and 24 h, followed by selective plating of the enriched broth and selective plating of the immunomagnetic separation (IMS) product. Recovery results were evaluated and compared. Successful mPCR detection and isolation was obtained for non-stressed and cold-stressed STEC cells in minced beef and raw-milk cheese samples, except for serogroups O111 and SF O157. For freeze-stressed cells and sprouted seed samples, false negatives were often found. Isolation was better after 24 h-enrichment compared to 6 h-enrichment. IMS improved in some cases the isolation of non-stressed and cold-stressed cells belonging to serogroups O111 and O157 from minced beef and raw-milk cheese and freeze-stressed cells of all tested serogroups from minced beef.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Verstraete
- Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090 Melle, Belgium
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Dewaele I, Ducatelle R, Herman L, Heyndrickx M, De Reu K. Sensitivity to disinfection of bacterial indicator organisms for monitoring the Salmonella Enteritidis status of layer farms after cleaning and disinfection. Poult Sci 2011; 90:1185-90. [DOI: 10.3382/ps.2010-01178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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23
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Leleu S, Herman L, Heyndrickx M, De Reu K, Michiels C, De Baerdemaeker J, Messens W. Effects on Salmonella shell contamination and trans-shell penetration of coating hens' eggs with chitosan. Int J Food Microbiol 2011; 145:43-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2010.11.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2010] [Revised: 11/10/2010] [Accepted: 11/12/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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De Reu K, Rodenburg T, Grijspeerdt K, Messens W, Heyndrickx M, Tuyttens F, Sonck B, Zoons J, Herman L. Bacteriological contamination, dirt, and cracks of eggshells in furnished cages and noncage systems for laying hens: An international on-farm comparison. Poult Sci 2009; 88:2442-8. [DOI: 10.3382/ps.2009-00097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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25
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De Reu K, Grijspeerdt K, Heyndrickx M, Uyttendaele M, Debevere J, Herman L. Bacterial shell contamination in the egg collection chains of different housing systems for laying hens. Br Poult Sci 2007; 47:163-72. [PMID: 16641027 DOI: 10.1080/00071660600610773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The bacterial eggshell contamination of eating eggs in different commercial housing systems; two conventional cages, one organic aviary system and one barn production, were compared. The total counts of aerobic bacteria and the total counts of Gram-negative bacteria on the shell were used to detect key points where contamination occurred and to study the progress of contamination in the egg collection and transportation chains. The key points in the chain were those where eggs accumulated on a short conveyor belt, initial shell contamination in the alternative housing systems and extra nest-boxes placed on the ground. The high bacterial load of floor eggs (>6.3 log CFU total aerobic flora/eggshell) explains why they cannot be used for eating. On average higher initial shell contamination with total counts of aerobic bacteria was found for eggs from the alternative housing systems compared to the conventional systems; respectively 5.46 compared to 5.08 log CFU/eggshell. However, initial contamination with total counts of Gram-negative bacteria on the shells was less in the alternative systems: 3.31 compared to 3.85 log CFU/shell. Initial bacterial shell contamination tended to correlate positively with the concentration of bacteria in the air of the poultry houses. Storing shell eggs, whether temporarily refrigerated or not, for 9 d or more, resulted in a decrease in bacterial eggshell contamination for both bacterial variables.
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Affiliation(s)
- K De Reu
- Ministry of the Flemish Community, Agricultural Research Centre, Department of Animal Product Quality and Transformation Technology, Melle, Belgium.
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De Reu K, Grijspeerdt K, Messens W, Heyndrickx M, Uyttendaele M, Debevere J, Herman L. Eggshell factors influencing eggshell penetration and whole egg contamination by different bacteria, including Salmonella enteritidis. Int J Food Microbiol 2006; 112:253-60. [PMID: 16822571 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2006.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 171] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/26/2006] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Trans-shell infection routes and whole egg contamination of 7 selected bacterial strains; Staphylococcus warneri, Acinetobacter baumannii, Alcaligenes sp., Serratia marcescens, Carnobacterium sp., Pseudomonas sp. and Salmonella enteritidis, recovered from egg contents, were studied. The first objective was to correlate bacterial eggshell penetration with various eggshell characteristics and bacterial strains. An agar approach was used to assess the eggshell penetration. The second objective was to assess the contamination of whole eggs with the bacterial strains; whole intact eggs were used in this case. The intact shells of agar-filled and whole eggs were inoculated with 10(3) -10(4) cfu of the selected strains. During 3 weeks storage at 20 degrees C and 60% relative humidity, the bacterial eggshell penetration was regularly monitored. The whole egg contamination was only analyzed after 3 weeks. The eggshell characteristics such as area eggshell, shell thickness and number of pores did not influence the bacterial eggshell penetration. For each individual bacterial strain the mean cuticle deposition was lower for penetrated compared to non-penetrated eggshells. For the individual strain Carnobacterium sp. and for the global results of all strains this difference was statistical significantly. The whole egg contamination was not influenced by neither the area of the eggshell nor the porosity of the eggshell. The results of the agar approach indicate that the Gram-negative, motile and non-clustering bacteria penetrated the eggshell most frequently; Pseudomonas sp. (60%) and Alcaligenes sp. (58%) were primary invaders followed by S. enteritidis (43%). All selected strains were able to penetrate; penetration was observed most frequently after ca. 4-5 days. Particularly S. enteritidis was a primary invader of whole eggs: the membranes and/or the content of 32% of the whole eggs was contaminated. The remaining bacterial eggshell contamination with the selected strain was determined after 3 weeks storage. Penetrated eggshells and contaminated whole eggs showed a significantly higher bacterial contamination on the eggshell compared to non-penetrated eggshells and non-contaminated whole eggs respectively (global results of all strains). The influence of hen age on bacterial eggshell penetration and egg content contamination was not significant. While the agar approach is suitable to study the influence of the eggshell characteristics on the bacterial eggshell penetration, the intact egg approach gives an estimation of the penetration of the shell followed by the probability of survival and migration in whole eggs.
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Affiliation(s)
- K De Reu
- Department of Animal Product Quality and Transformation Technology, Agricultural Research Centre-Ghent, Ministry of the Flemish Community, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090 Melle, Belgium.
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De Reu K, Grijspeerdt K, Herman L, Heyndrickx M, Uyttendaele M, Debevere J, Putirulan FF, Bolder NM. The effect of a commercial UV disinfection system on the bacterial load of shell eggs. Lett Appl Microbiol 2006; 42:144-8. [PMID: 16441379 DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-765x.2005.01825.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To study the effect of UV irradiation on the bacterial load of shell eggs and of a roller conveyor belt. METHODS AND RESULTS The natural bacterial load on the eggshell of clean eggs was significantly reduced by a standard UV treatment of 4.7 s; from 4.47 to 3.57 log CFU per eggshell. For very dirty eggs no significant reduction was observed. Eggs inoculated with Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus (4.74 and 4.64 log CFU per eggshell respectively) passed the conveyor belt and were exposed to UV for 4.7 and 18.8 s. The reduction of both inoculated bacteria on the eggshell was comparable and significant for both exposure times (3 and 4 log CFU per eggshell). Escherichia coli was reduced but still detectable on the conveyor rollers. The internal bacterial contamination of eggs filled up with diluent containing E. coli or S. aureus was not influenced by UV irradiation. CONCLUSIONS There is a significant lethal effect of UV irradiation on the bacterial contamination of clean eggshells and recent shell contamination, contamination of rollers can be controlled and the internal contamination of eggs is not reduced. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY The penetration of UV into organic material appears to be poor and UV disinfection can be used as an alternative for egg washing.
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Affiliation(s)
- K De Reu
- Department of Animal Product Quality and Transformation Technology, Ministry of the Flemish Community, Agricultural Research Centre, Melle, Belgium.
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De Reu K, Grijspeerdt K, Heyndrickx M, Zoons J, De Baere K, Uyttendaele M, Debevere J, Herman L. Bacterial eggshell contamination in conventional cages, furnished cages and aviary housing systems for laying hens. Br Poult Sci 2005; 46:149-55. [PMID: 15957434 DOI: 10.1080/00071660500065359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The influence of housing system on the initial bacterial contamination of the eggshell was studied. Two long-term experiments were performed. Bacterial eggshell contamination, as expressed by total count of aerobic and Gram-negative bacteria, was periodically analysed for eggs from a conventional cage, a furnished cage with nest boxes containing artificial turf or grids as nest-floor material and an aviary housing system. Results were log-transformed prior to statistical analyses. For both experiments no systematic differences were found between the conventional cage and furnished cage. The type of nest-floor material in the nest boxes of the furnished cages also did not systematically influence the bacterial contamination. A possible seasonal influence on contamination with a decrease in the winter period (up to > 0.5 log cfu/eggshell) of total count of aerobic and Gram-negative bacteria was observed in the first experiment. The contamination with total aerobic flora was higher (more than 1.0 log) on eggs from the aviary housing system compared to the conventional and the furnished cage systems. For Gram-negative bacteria this was not the case. During the entire period of both experiments, independent of housing system, shell contamination was not influenced by age of hens or period since placing the birds in the houses. For the total count of aerobic bacteria a restricted positive correlation (r2 = 0.66) was found between the concentration of total bacteria in the air of the poultry houses and initial shell contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- K De Reu
- Ministry of the Flemish Community, Agricultural Research Centre, Department of Animal Product Quality and Transformation Technology, Melle, Belgium.
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De Reu K, Grijspeerdt K, Heyndrickx M, Uyttendaele M, Herman L. Quality assurance in the egg production chain to reduce the bacterial contamination of the eggshell. Commun Agric Appl Biol Sci 2003; 68:421-425. [PMID: 24757781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Washing eggs in sterile plastic bags with diluent is an efficient sample preparation method for the determination of the bacterial contamination on eggshells. The total count of aerobic bacteria and the total count of Gramnegative bacteria on the eggshell can be used to detect critical contamination points in the egg production chain. The number of eggs to be sampled in a point of the production chain was determined on a statistical basis and fixed on 40 for non-graded eggs and on 20 for graded eggs. In two production chains, one cage production and one organic production system, critical contamination points were identified. The influence of the housing system on the bacterial contamination of the eggshell at the stable was studied. A positive correlation was found between the initial bacterial eggshell contamination and the concentration of bacteria in the air of the poultry houses. With the exception of heavily soiled shells, like shells from ground eggs, there is a poor correlation between the level of bacterial contamination and the visual eggshell contamination.
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