Pellet microfossils: Possible evidence for metazoan life in Early Proterozoic time

Microfossils resembling fecal pellets occur in acid-resistant residues and thin sections of Middle Cambrian to Early Proterozoic shale. The cylindrical microfossils average 50 x 110 mum and are the size and shape of fecal pellets produced by microscopic animals today. Pellets occur in dark gray and black rocks that were deposited in the facies that also preserves sulfide minerals and that represent environments analogous to those that preserve fecal pellets today. Rocks containing pellets and algal microfossils range in age from 0.53 to 1.9 gigayears (Gyr) and include Burgess Shale, Greyson and Newland Formations, Rove Formation, and Gunflint Iron-Formation. Similar rock types of Archean age, ranging from 2.68 to 3.8 Gyr, were barren of pellets. If the Proterozoic microfossils are fossilized fecal pellets, they provide evidence of metazoan life and a complex food chain at 1.9 Gyr ago. This occurrence predates macroscopic metazoan body fossils in the Ediacaran System at 0.67 Gyr, animal trace fossils from 0.9 to 1.3 Gyr, and fossils of unicellular eukaryotic plankton at 1.4 Gyr.

Depth distribution of bacterial production in a stratified lake with an anoxic hypolimnion

The purpose of this study was to determine the depth distribution of bacterial biomass and production in a stratified lake and to test techniques to measure bacterial production in anaerobic waters. Bacterial abundance and incorporation of both [H]thymidine and [H]leucine into protein were highest in the metalimnion, at the depth at which oxygen first became unmeasurable. In contrast, [H]thymidine incorporation into DNA was highest in the epilimnion. The ratios of incorporation into DNA/protein averaged 2.2, 0.49, and 0.95 for the epilimnion, metalimnion, and hypolimnion, respectively. Low incorporation into DNA was not due to artifacts associated with the DNA isolation procedure. Recovery of added [H]DNA was about 90% in waters in which the portion of [H]thymidine incorporation into DNA was about 40%. At least some obligate anaerobic bacteria were capable of assimilating thymidine since aeration of anaerobic hypolimnion waters substantially inhibited thymidine incorporation. The depth profile of bacterial production estimated from total thymidine and leucine incorporation and the frequency of dividing cells were all similar, with maximal rates in the metalimnion. However, estimates of bacterial production based on frequency of dividing cells and leucine incorporation were usually significantly higher than estimates based on thymidine incorporation (using conversion factors from the literature), especially in anaerobic hypolimnion waters. These data indicate that the thymidine approach must be examined carefully if it is to be applied to aquatic systems with low oxygen concentrations. Our results also indicate that the interface between the aerobic epilimnion and anaerobic hypolimnion is the site of intense bacterial mineralization and biomass production which deserves further study.

Use of metabolic inhibitors to estimate protozooplankton grazing and bacterial production in a monomictic eutrophic lake with an anaerobic hypolimnion

Inhibitors of eucaryotes (cycloheximide and amphotericin B) and procaryotes (penicillin and chloramphenicol) were used to estimate bacterivory and bacterial production in a eutrophic lake. Bacterial production appeared to be slightly greater than protozoan grazing in the aerobic waters of Lake Oglethorpe. Use of penicillin and cycloheximide yielded inconsistent results in anaerobic water and in aerobic water when bacterial production was low. Production measured by inhibiting eucaryotes with cycloheximide did not always agree with [H]thymidine estimates or differential filtration methods. Laboratory experiments showed that several common freshwater protozoans continued to swim and ingest bacterium-size latex beads in the presence of the eucaryote inhibitor. Penicillin also affected grazing rates of some ciliates. We recommend that caution and a corroborating method be used when estimating ecologically important parameters with specific inhibitors.

Development of a genus-specific PCR assay for the molecular detection, confirmation and identification of Fusobacterium spp

A genus-specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based assay is developed for the detection and identification of clinically relevant Fusobacterium species, including F. nucleatum and F. necrophorum. Two 16S ribosomal DNA (rDNA) primers, FUSO1 (forward primer: 5'-GAG AGA GCT TTG CGT CC-3' [17-mer]) and FUSO 2 (reverse primer: 5'-TGG GCG CTG AGG TTC GAC -3' [18-mer]) are designed to target conserved regions of the 16S rDNA gene for Fusobacterium spp. Subsequent proof-of-principle studies employing this assay detected Fusobacterium spp. in the faeces of eight (10%) out of 80 patients with suspected gastrointestinal infection. This assay may be used for the genus-specific detection of Fusobacterium spp. from clinical specimens and for subsequent species identification.

Gastric as well as duodenal biopsies may be useful in the investigation of iron deficiency anaemia

BACKGROUND

Iron absorption is known to be impaired in the setting of gastric achlorhydria, yet gastric atrophy is not usually considered an aetiological factor for iron deficiency anaemia. We aimed to determine the prevalence of achlorhydric gastric atrophy in patients with iron deficiency and no identifiable source of gastrointestinal blood loss, and to assess whether gastric, as well as duodenal, biopsies should be routinely performed in these patients.

PATIENTS

Forty-one consecutive patients with iron deficiency anaemia and no specific gastrointestinal symptoms or evidence of a bleeding lesion on faecal occult blood testing or upper gastrointestinal or colonic endoscopy.

METHODS

As well as routine duodenal biopsies, samples were taken from gastric corpus and antrum for evidence of gastric atrophy. Achlorhydria was considered to be present if plasma gastrin measured on a sample obtained with the patient fasting was over 200 ng/l. Serum was tested for intrinsic factor and gastric parietal cell antibodies.

RESULTS

Haemoglobin concentrations ranged from 4.1 to 10.9 g/dl. Eight (20%) of the 41 patients had corpus-predominant or generalized atrophy and high plasma gastrin levels, of whom six had serum intrinsic factor and/or gastric parietal cell antibodies: two also had Giardia lamblia organisms in duodenal biopsies. Four other patients (10%) had villous atrophy of the duodenum.

CONCLUSIONS

As well as confirming the importance of seeking coeliac disease in patients with iron deficiency anaemia, our results suggest that achlorhydric gastric atrophy is also a common association. Gastric biopsies should be taken in patients with no other explanation for anaemia. The finding of Giardia organisms in two achlorhydric patients, with a possible contributory role, suggests that duodenal biopsies should be obtained even if serum coeliac-related antibodies are absent.

Screening for coeliac disease as a possible maternal risk factor for neural tube defect

Coeliac disease is an important cause of malabsorption, particularly of folic acid, in adults. We investigated the possibility that it might be a maternal risk factor for neural tube defect (NTD)-associated pregnancy by screening affected mothers using serum endomysial antibody (EmA) which has high sensitivity and specificity for coeliac disease. One (1.6%) of 60 patients was EmA positive and had a diagnosis of coeliac disease confirmed by the finding of villous atrophy on jejunal biopsy. In conclusion, the majority of NTD-associated pregnancies are not associated with maternal coeliac disease and our study is additional evidence that abnormalities of folic acid metabolism rather than absorption are the most important risk factors for NTD. Further studies are needed to determine whether the coeliac disease prevalence among women with NTD-affected pregnancy is higher than that of the general population.

Lewis phenotype, secretor status, and coeliac disease

Patients who cannot secrete ABO and Lewis blood group antigens into body fluids, an ability controlled by a single gene on chromosome 19, are known to be at increased risk of certain autoimmune diseases associated with human leucocyte antigen (HLA) markers. This study investigated the possibility of an association with coeliac disease using red cell Lewis (Le) blood group phenotype to infer secretor status. Among 73 patients with coeliac disease who had Le a or b antigen, 48% were non-secretors (Le a + b-) compared with 27% of 137 blood donors (p = 0.004: odds ratio 2.49, 95% confidence intervals 1.37 to 4.51) and 26% of 62 medical and nursing staff controls (p = 0.014: odds ratio 2.65, 95% confidence intervals 1.27 to 5.50). Clinical characteristics did not differ between secretors and non-secretors with coeliac disease. Thus, the non-secretor state is significantly associated with coeliac disease, suggesting that genes on chromosome 19 may directly or indirectly participate in conferring susceptibility.

Secretor status and Helicobacter pylori infection are independent risk factors for gastroduodenal disease

The hypothesis that non-secretors of ABO blood group antigens, a group shown to be more susceptible to certain bacterial infections, may be at greater risk of gastroduodenal disease because of increased susceptibility to Helicobacter pylori infection was investigated. Of 101 patients with symptoms of dyspepsia who were undergoing endoscopy, 32% were non-secretors (determined from Lewis blood group phenotype), 36% had endoscopically visible gastroduodenal disease (antral gastritis, gastric ulcer, erosive duodenitis, duodenal ulcer or some combination), and 58% had H pylori detected in antral biopsy specimens. Non-secretors and patients with H pylori infection were significantly more likely to have gastroduodenal disease (p = 0.02 and p = 0.002 respectively). There was, however, no significant association between secretor status and H pylori infection, logistic regression analysis confirming that these were independently associated with gastroduodenal disease. Overall, the relative risk of gastroduodenal disease for non-secretors compared with secretors was 1.9 (95% confidence intervals 1.2, 3.2). Non-secretion of ABO blood group antigens is not related to H pylori infection but is independently and significantly associated with endoscopic gastroduodenal disease. The mechanism of this remains to be explained.

Detection of undiagnosed coeliac disease with atypical features using antireticulin and antigliadin antibodies

Eighteen patients with a variety of non-gastrointestinal symptoms were incidentally found to have circulating antireticulin antibody and on subsequent testing were also positive for antigliadin antibody. They prospectively underwent jejunal biopsy to determine whether or not they had coeliac disease. Their age range was 21-79 years (mean 42 years). Enteropathy was present in 13 (72 per cent) and was always associated with circulating IgA antigliadin antibody. Enteropathy was not present in the five cases who had only IgG antibody. Clinical improvement occurred in eight of 11 patients who complied with a gluten-free diet and was paralleled by an improvement in the mucosal histology in seven of eight who were re-biopsied. The most remarkable cases were two patients who presented with severe debility and no apparent haematological or biochemical abnormalities, and who subsequently made a dramatic recovery on a gluten-free diet. It is concluded that antireticulin antibody detected by routine autoantibody screening and confirmed to have IgA antigliadin antibody specificity is a useful indicator of an otherwise undiagnosed enteropathy. This serves to emphasize that the condition can sometimes be associated with atypical features and significant morbidity.

Predictive value for coeliac disease of antibodies to gliadin, endomysium, and jejunum in patients attending for jejunal biopsy

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the extent to which the detection of antibodies to gliadin, endomysium, and jejunum predicts the eventual diagnosis of coeliac disease according to the revised ESPGAN diagnostic criteria in a group of patients in whom there is a high suspicion of coeliac disease.

DESIGN

Clinical assessment and laboratory analysis of patients with suspected coeliac disease.

SETTING

Gastroenterology department of teaching hospital.

PATIENTS

96 adults with suspected coeliac disease attending for jejunal biopsy.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Diagnosis of coeliac disease with the revised criteria of the European Society of Paediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition in patients with and without antibodies associated with coeliac disease.

RESULTS

28 patients had a clinical diagnosis of coeliac disease, seven of other gastrointestinal diseases, and 12 of miscellaneous diseases; 49 had no diagnosis. Gliadin IgA detected by ELISA was found in all patients with coeliac disease and none of those without, giving a sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive values, and predictive efficiency of 100% for diagnosing coeliac disease within the group. Endomysial IgA was found in 25 (89%) patients with coeliac disease and jejunal IgA in 21 (75%); neither IgA was found in patients without coeliac disease.

CONCLUSION

Detection of gliadin IgA by ELISA and to a lesser extent the endomysial IgA should allow better selection of patients for jejunal biopsy and thus make diagnosing coeliac disease simpler and more efficient.

Relative nutritional value of ciliate protozoa and algae as food forDaphnia

The relative importance of autotrophic flagellates, desmids, cyanobacteria, and ciliates as food forDaphnia magna was examined using cohort life tables. Each cohort was fed a single food type at a given concentration, and comparisons among each type were made. Algal feeding treatments included three levels of young (7 to 14 days old)Chlamydomonas reinhardi (Chlorophyta, Chlamydomonadacae), two levels of senescent (> 14 days old)C. reinhardi, two levels ofCryptomonas sp. (Chlorophyta, Cryptomonadacae), two levels ofStaurastrum sp. (Chlorophyta, Desmidacae), four levels of young (7 to 15 days old) or senescent (> 15 days old)Microcystis aeruginosa (Cyanophyta, Chlorococcacae), and a no-food treatment. The ciliatesCyclidium sp. andParamecium caudatum were also presented at concentrations of 1 or 10(2) cells/ml, as well as mixtures ofC. reinhardi (10(3)/ml) andCyclidium (1/ml) orP. caudatum (1/ml).Daphnia growth, reproduction, and survivorship were highest whenC. reinhardi orCryptomonas were the food source, while those starved or fedM. aeruginosa had shorter survivorship and lower growth and reproduction.Daphnia grew and had high survivorship when fedP. caudatum, but even though eggs were produced, most were aborted after 2 or 3 days.Staurastrum andCyclidium produced intermediate growth and survivorship, but reproduction was seen only in the 10(3) Staurastrum/ml treatment. Carbon and nitrogen content were general indicators of nutritional value. However, growth, reproduction, and survivorship were higher in some cohorts fed treatments containing relatively low levels of carbon and nitrogen. Other cohorts were short-lived and did not reproduce, despite being fed much higher levels of carbon and nitrogen. The results also suggest that green algae are nutritionally valuable forDaphnia, whereas cyanobacteria are not. As measured by life-table parameters, the nutritional value of ciliates was variable, with some being poor food sources. Thus, the potential of ciliates as a trophic link between microbial production and higher trophic levels may vary with the ciliate community structure. Our results suggest that ciliates alone were insufficient as a food source to supportDaphnia population growth.

Relationship between phototrophy and phagotrophy in the mixotrophic chrysophytePoterioochromonas malhamensis

The time scales involved in the transition between phototrophic and phagotrophic modes of nutrition were examined in the mixotrophic chrysophytePoterioochromonas malhamensis. Phagotrophy began almost immediately when bacteria were added to phototrophically growing cultures of the alga, and chlorophylla concentration per cell in these cultures decreased over a 24-hour period. Chlorophyll concentrations per cell began to increase when bacteria were grazed to a density of approximately 10(6) ml(-1), but after more than 24 hours they had not returned to the higher chlorophyll concentrations observed in the phototrophically grown cultures. Bacterivory was the dominant mode of nutrition in all cultures containing heat-killed bacteria. Photosynthesis did not contribute more than ≈7% of the total carbon budget of the alga when in the presence of abundant heat-killed bacteria. Bacterial density was the primary factor influencing the ability ofP. malhamensis to feed phagotrophically, while light intensity, pH, and the presence of dissolved organic matter had no effect on phagotrophy. We conclude thatP. malhamensis is capable of phagotrophy at all times. In contrast, phototrophy is inducible in the light during starvation and is a long-term survival strategy for this mixotrophic alga (i.e., it operates on time scales greater than a diel cycle).

An audit of hospital admissions for acute upper gastrointestinal haemorrhage

A retrospective survey was made of all 189 patients admitted with acute upper gastrointestinal haemorrhage to the Belfast City Hospital in one year. The commonest single reason for admission was peptic ulcer disease, but this was lower than in other published series from the United Kingdom. Overall mortality was 4.8%. The majority of patients did not require either blood transfusion or surgery. There may be potential benefits of endoscopic haemostatic techniques to deal with this condition.

Survival of coliforms and bacterial pathogens within protozoa during chlorination

The susceptibility of coliform bacteria and bacterial pathogens to free chlorine residuals was determined before and after incubation with amoebae and ciliate protozoa. Viability of bacteria was quantified to determine their resistance to free chlorine residuals when ingested by laboratory strains of Acanthamoeba castellanii and Tetrahymena pyriformis. Cocultures of bacteria and protozoa were incubated to facilitate ingestion of the bacteria and then were chlorinated, neutralized, and sonicated to release intracellular bacteria. Qualitative susceptibility of protozoan strains to free chlorine was also assessed. Protozoa were shown to survive and grow after exposure to levels of free chlorine residuals that killed free-living bacteria. Ingested coliforms Escherichia coli, Citrobacter freundii, Enterobacter agglomerans, Enterobacter cloacae, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Klebsiella oxytoca and bacterial pathogens Salmonella typhimurium, Yersinia enterocolitica, Shigella sonnei, Legionella gormanii, and Campylobacter jejuni had increased resistance to free chlorine residuals. Bacteria could be cultured from within treated protozoans well after the time required for 99% inactivation of free-living cells. All bacterial pathogens were greater than 50-fold more resistant to free chlorine when ingested by T. pyriformis. Escherichia coli ingested by a Cyclidium sp., a ciliate isolated from a drinking water reservoir, were also shown to be more resistant to free chlorine. The mechanism that increased resistance appeared to be survival within protozoan cells. This study indicates that bacteria can survive ingestion by protozoa. This bacterium-protozoan association provides bacteria with increased resistance to free chlorine residuals which can lead to persistence of bacteria in chlorine-treated water. We propose that resistance to digestion by predatory protozoa was an evolutionary precursor of pathogenicity in bacteria and that today it is a mechanism for survival of fastidious bacteria in dilute and inhospitable aquatic environments.

Empyema necessitatis presenting as a swelling in the right hypochondrium

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Gliadin antibody detection in gluten enteropathy

Circulating antigliadin antibody has been described in patients with gluten enteropathy although the prevalence varies in different studies. It has been suggested that the investigation for antigliadin antibody might be useful as a screening test. The object of the present study was to evaluate two different techniques for assaying these antibodies - an indirect immunofluorescent method and an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Antibodies were assayed in the sera of 102 patients in whom jejunal biopsies were also obtained. The specificity of both tests was greater than 95%, and the correlation between the presence of antibody and histology was significant (p < 0.005), though the sensitivity of each test was less than 70%.

Midazolam for upper gastrointestinal endoscopy

A water-soluble benzodiazepine, midazolam, was used in 400 patients undergoing upper gastrointestinal endoscopy, alone or in combination with pentazocine and compared with 68 patients given diazepam (Valium). In the last 200 patients the endoscopist used midazolam without the presence of an anaesthetist. The absence of injection pain was the most notable feature of midazolam. The degree of co-operation was similar in all groups but the operating conditions were significantly better when midazolam was combined with pentazocine. There was no significant difference in recovery times between the groups as assessed by the pegboard test. Midazolam is an acceptable alternative to diazepam for upper gastrointestinal endoscopy.

The Role of Surface Chemistry in Filter Feeding by Zooplankton

Surface chemistry of both particles and animals is important in filter feeding at low Reynolds number. Daphnia magna, fed mixtures of three sizes of polystyrene particles, retained particles that were smaller than the mesh size of the animals (1.0 micrometer) at greater efficiencies than predicted by a sieving model. Retention efficiency of the smallest particles (0.5 micrometer) was increased when negative surface charge on the particles was neutralized, and retention was decreased when a nonionic surfactant was, added to reduce wettability.

Zooplankton Fecal Pellets Link Fossil Fuel and Phosphate Deposits

Fossil zooplankton fecal pellets found in thinly bedded marine and lacustrine black shales associated with phosphate, oil, and coal deposits, link the deposition of organic matter and biologically associated minerals with planktonic ecosystems. The black shales were probably formed in the anoxic basins of coastal marine waters, inland seas, and rift valley lakes where high productivity was supported by runoff, upwelling, and outwelling.

Enhancement of Algal Growth and Productivity by Grazing Zooplankton

Colonies of the common planktonic green alga, Sphaerocystis schroeteri, are only partially disrupted and assimilated by Daphnia magna, a natural predator. The Daphnia break up the outer protective gelatinous sheath that surrounds Sphaerocystis colonies, but most of the algal cells emerge from Daphnia guts intact and in viable condition. During gut passage, these viable cells take up nutrients, such as phosphorus, both from algal remains and from Daphnia metabolites. This nutrient supply stimulates algal carbon fixation and cell division. Enhanced algal growth, observed after gut passage, can compensate for the minor losses to the population caused by grazing. Nutrients regenerated by grazers may produce the summer bloom of gelatinous green algae during the seasonal succession of lake phytoplankton.