Active eosinophils regulate host defence and immune responses in colitis

In the past decade, single-cell transcriptomics has helped to uncover new cell types and states and led to the construction of a cellular compendium of health and disease. Despite this progress, some difficult-to-sequence cells remain absent from tissue atlases. Eosinophils-elusive granulocytes that are implicated in a plethora of human pathologies1-5-are among these uncharted cell types. The heterogeneity of eosinophils and the gene programs that underpin their pleiotropic functions remain poorly understood. Here we provide a comprehensive single-cell transcriptomic profiling of mouse eosinophils. We identify an active and a basal population of intestinal eosinophils, which differ in their transcriptome, surface proteome and spatial localization. By means of a genome-wide CRISPR inhibition screen and functional assays, we reveal a mechanism by which interleukin-33 (IL-33) and interferon-γ (IFNγ) induce the accumulation of active eosinophils in the inflamed colon. Active eosinophils are endowed with bactericidal and T cell regulatory activity, and express the co-stimulatory molecules CD80 and PD-L1. Notably, active eosinophils are enriched in the lamina propria of a small cohort of patients with inflammatory bowel disease, and are closely associated with CD4+ T cells. Our findings provide insights into the biology of eosinophils and highlight the crucial contribution of this cell type to intestinal homeostasis, immune regulation and host defence. Furthermore, we lay a framework for the characterization of eosinophils in human gastrointestinal diseases.

Treg-selective IL-2 starvation synergizes with CD40 activation to sustain durable responses in lymphoma models

BACKGROUND

Roughly half of all diffuse large B-cell lymphomas (DLBCLs) are infiltrated by large numbers of regulatory T-cells (Tregs). Although the presence of 'effector' Tregs in particular is associated with an inferior prognosis in patients on standard rituximab plus cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, and prednisone (R-CHOP) immunochemotherapy, the role of this cell type during lymphoma initiation and progression is poorly understood.

METHODS

Here, we use tissue microarrays containing prospectively collected DLBCL patient specimens, as well as data from publicly available cohorts to explore the mutational landscape of Treg-infiltrated DLBCL. We further take advantage of a model of MYC-driven lymphoma to mechanistically dissect the contribution of Tregs to lymphoma pathogenesis and to develop a strategy of Treg-selective interleukin-2 (IL-2) starvation to improve immune control of MYC-driven lymphoma.

RESULTS

We find that all genetic DLBCL subtypes, except for one characterized by co-occurring MYD88/CD79 mutations, are heavily infiltrated by Tregs. Spectral flow cytometry and scRNA-sequencing reveal the robust expression of functional and immunosuppressive markers on Tregs infiltrating MYC-driven lymphomas; notably, we find that intratumoral Tregs arise due to local conversion from naïve CD4+ precursors on tumor contact. Treg ablation in Foxp3iDTR mice, or by antibody-mediated Treg-selective blockade of IL-2 signaling, strongly reduces the lymphoma burden. We identify lymphoma B-cells as a major source of IL-2, and show that the effects of Treg depletion are reversed by the simultaneous depletion of Foxp3-negative CD4+ T-cells, but not CD8+ T-cells or natural killer (NK) cells. The inhibition of ATP hydrolyzation and adenosine production by Tregs at least partly phenocopies the effects of Treg depletion. Treg depletion further synergizes with pro-apoptotic CD40 activation to sustain durable responses.

CONCLUSION

The combined data implicate Tregs as a potential therapeutic target in DLBCL, especially in combination with other immunotherapies.

Tumor cell-derived IL-10 promotes cell-autonomous growth and immune escape in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma

Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is an aggressive malignancy arising from germinal center or post-germinal center B-cells that retain many of the properties of normal B-cells. Here we show that a subset of DLBCL express the cytokine IL-10 and its receptor. The genetic ablation of IL-10 receptor signaling abrogates the autocrine STAT3 phosphorylation triggered by tumor cell-intrinsic IL-10 expression and impairs growth of DLBCL cell lines in subcutaneous and orthotopic xenotransplantation models. Furthermore, we demonstrate using an immunocompetent Myc-driven model of DLBCL that neutralization of IL-10 signaling reduces tumor growth, which can be attributed to reduced Treg infiltration, stronger intratumoral effector T-cell responses, and restored tumor-specific MHCII expression. The effects of IL-10R neutralization were phenocopied by the genetic ablation of IL-10 signaling in the Treg compartment and could be reversed by MHCII blockade. The BTK inhibitor ibrutinib effectively blocked tumor cell-intrinsic IL-10 expression and tumor growth in this Myc-driven model. Tumors from patients with high IL-10RA expression are infiltrated by higher numbers of Tregs than IL-10RA^low patients. Finally, we show in 16 cases of DLBCL derived from transplant patients on immunosuppressive therapy that IL-10RA expression is less common in this cohort, and Treg infiltration is not observed.

Inhibitors of Bcl-2 and Bruton's tyrosine kinase synergize to abrogate diffuse large B-cell lymphoma growth in vitro and in orthotopic xenotransplantation models

Numerous targeted therapies have been developed for diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, but the results of late-stage clinical trials were mostly disappointing and have led to very few new regulatory approvals. Here, we use single and combinatorial drug response profiling to show that the combined inhibition of the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2 and of the tyrosine kinase BTK with the small molecules venetoclax and ibrutinib efficiently kills DLBCL cells in vitro. High Bcl-2 expression due to either BCL2 amplifications or translocations, in conjunction with chronic active BCR signaling accurately predict responses to dual Bcl-2/BTK inhibition. Orthotopic xenotransplantation and patient-derived xenograft models confirm that the combinatorial is superior to single-agent treatment in reducing the lymphoma burden. Combinatorial treatment further efficiently overcomes both primary and acquired resistance to venetoclax, which we could link to reduced expression of the Bcl-2 family members Bcl-X_L and Bcl-2A1 under ibrutinib. We found in a Swiss DLBCL cohort that ~15% of patients are projected to respond to the venetoclax/ibrutinib combination based on their high Bcl-2 expression and nuclear NF-κB localization. Our data show that drug sensitivities exposed by drug response profiling can be attributed to specific mutational signatures and immunohistochemical biomarkers, and point to combined Bcl-2/BTK inhibition as a promising therapeutic strategy in DLBCL.

NASH limits anti-tumour surveillance in immunotherapy-treated HCC

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) can have viral or non-viral causes^1-5. Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is an important driver of HCC. Immunotherapy has been approved for treating HCC, but biomarker-based stratification of patients for optimal response to therapy is an unmet need^6,7. Here we report the progressive accumulation of exhausted, unconventionally activated CD8⁺PD1⁺ T cells in NASH-affected livers. In preclinical models of NASH-induced HCC, therapeutic immunotherapy targeted at programmed death-1 (PD1) expanded activated CD8⁺PD1⁺ T cells within tumours but did not lead to tumour regression, which indicates that tumour immune surveillance was impaired. When given prophylactically, anti-PD1 treatment led to an increase in the incidence of NASH-HCC and in the number and size of tumour nodules, which correlated with increased hepatic CD8⁺PD1⁺CXCR6⁺, TOX⁺, and TNF⁺ T cells. The increase in HCC triggered by anti-PD1 treatment was prevented by depletion of CD8⁺ T cells or TNF neutralization, suggesting that CD8⁺ T cells help to induce NASH-HCC, rather than invigorating or executing immune surveillance. We found similar phenotypic and functional profiles in hepatic CD8⁺PD1⁺ T cells from humans with NAFLD or NASH. A meta-analysis of three randomized phase III clinical trials that tested inhibitors of PDL1 (programmed death-ligand 1) or PD1 in more than 1,600 patients with advanced HCC revealed that immune therapy did not improve survival in patients with non-viral HCC. In two additional cohorts, patients with NASH-driven HCC who received anti-PD1 or anti-PDL1 treatment showed reduced overall survival compared to patients with other aetiologies. Collectively, these data show that non-viral HCC, and particularly NASH-HCC, might be less responsive to immunotherapy, probably owing to NASH-related aberrant T cell activation causing tissue damage that leads to impaired immune surveillance. Our data provide a rationale for stratification of patients with HCC according to underlying aetiology in studies of immunotherapy as a primary or adjuvant treatment.

The IL-6 signaling complex is a critical driver, negative prognostic factor, and therapeutic target in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma

Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is a growth factor for normal B cells and plasma cell-derived malignancies. Here, we show that the IL-6 signaling pathway is also active in a subset of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) patients with particularly poor prognosis. Primary DLBCL cells and DLBCL cell lines expressing IL-6R engraft and form orthotopic lymphomas in humanized mice that ectopically produce human IL-6, and in mice reconstituted with a human immune system. We show that a subset of DLBCL cases have evolved mechanisms that ensure constitutive activation of the IL-6 signaling pathway, i.e., the expression of both chains of the IL-6R, the expression of the cytokine itself, and the mutational inactivation of a negative regulator of IL-6 signaling, SOCS1. IL-6 signaling promotes MYC-driven lymphomagenesis in a genetically engineered model, and treatment with the IL-6R-specific antibody tocilizumab reduces growth of primary DLBCL cells and of DLBCL cell lines in various therapeutic settings. The combined results uncover the IL-6 signaling pathway as a driver and negative prognosticator in aggressive DLBCL that can be targeted with a safe and well-tolerated biologic.