1
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Gerson J, Erdal MK, McDonough MH, Ploense KL, Dauphin-Ducharme P, Honeywell KM, Leung KK, Arroyo-Curras N, Gibson JM, Emmons NA, Meiring W, Hespanha JP, Plaxco KW, Kippin TE. High-precision monitoring of and feedback control over drug concentrations in the brains of freely moving rats. Sci Adv 2023; 9:eadg3254. [PMID: 37196087 PMCID: PMC10191434 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adg3254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2022] [Accepted: 04/12/2023] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Knowledge of drug concentrations in the brains of behaving subjects remains constrained on a number of dimensions, including poor temporal resolution and lack of real-time data. Here, however, we demonstrate the ability of electrochemical aptamer-based sensors to support seconds-resolved, real-time measurements of drug concentrations in the brains of freely moving rats. Specifically, using such sensors, we achieve <4 μM limits of detection and 10-s resolution in the measurement of procaine in the brains of freely moving rats, permitting the determination of the pharmacokinetics and concentration-behavior relations of the drug with high precision for individual subjects. In parallel, we have used closed-loop feedback-controlled drug delivery to hold intracranial procaine levels constant (±10%) for >1.5 hours. These results demonstrate the utility of such sensors in (i) the determination of the site-specific, seconds-resolved neuropharmacokinetics, (ii) enabling the study of individual subject neuropharmacokinetics and concentration-response relations, and (iii) performing high-precision control over intracranial drug levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian Gerson
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
- Neuroscience Research Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
- Institute for Collaborative Biotechnologies, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Murat Kaan Erdal
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Matthew H. McDonough
- Department of Statistics and Applied Probability, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Kyle L. Ploense
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | | | - Kevin M. Honeywell
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Kaylyn K. Leung
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Netzahualcoyotl Arroyo-Curras
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Jenny M. Gibson
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Nicole A. Emmons
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Wendy Meiring
- Department of Statistics and Applied Probability, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Joao P. Hespanha
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Kevin W. Plaxco
- Institute for Collaborative Biotechnologies, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Tod E. Kippin
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
- Neuroscience Research Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
- Department of Molecular Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
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2
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Webb SM, Sacramento AD, McCloskey MA, Wroten MG, Ploense KL, Kippin TE, Ben-Shahar O, Szumlinski KK. The incubation of cocaine craving is dissociated from changes in glial cell markers within prefrontal cortex and nucleus accumbens of rats. Addict Neurosci 2022; 3:100030. [PMID: 36034166 PMCID: PMC9410194 DOI: 10.1016/j.addicn.2022.100030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sierra M. Webb
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-9660, USA
| | - Arianne D. Sacramento
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-9660, USA
| | - Megan A. McCloskey
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-9660, USA
| | - Melissa G. Wroten
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-9660, USA
| | - Kyle L. Ploense
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-9660, USA
| | - Tod E. Kippin
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-9660, USA
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-9625, USA
- Neuroscience Research Institute, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-9625, USA
| | - Osnat Ben-Shahar
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-9660, USA
| | - Karen K. Szumlinski
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-9660, USA
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-9625, USA
- Neuroscience Research Institute, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-9625, USA
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3
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Dauphin-Ducharme P, Ploense KL, Arroyo-Currás N, Kippin TE, Plaxco KW. Electrochemical Aptamer-Based Sensors: A Platform Approach to High-Frequency Molecular Monitoring In Situ in the Living Body. Methods Mol Biol 2022; 2393:479-492. [PMID: 34837195 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1803-5_25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The monitoring of specific molecules in the living body has historically required sample removal (e.g., blood draws, microdialysis) followed by analysis via cumbersome, laboratory-bound processes. Those few exceptions to this rule (e.g., glucose, pyruvate, the monoamines) are monitored using "one-off" technologies reliant on the specific enzymatic or redox reactivity of their targets, and thus not generalizable to the measurement of other targets. In response we have developed in vivo electrochemical aptamer-based (E-AB) sensors, a modular, receptor-based measurement technology that is independent of the chemical reactivity of its targets, and thus has the potential to be generalizable to a wide range of analytes. To further the adoption of this in vivo molecular measurement approach by other researchers and to accelerate its ultimate translation to the clinic, we present here our standard protocols for the fabrication and use of intravenous E-AB sensors.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kyle L Ploense
- Center for Bioengineering, UC Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | | | - Tod E Kippin
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, UC Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA.,Department of Molecular Developmental and Cellular Biology, UC Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA.,Neuroscience Research Institute, UC Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - Kevin W Plaxco
- Center for Bioengineering, UC Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA. .,Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, UC Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA.
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4
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Downs AM, Gerson J, Ploense KL, Plaxco KW, Dauphin-Ducharme P. Subsecond-Resolved Molecular Measurements Using Electrochemical Phase Interrogation of Aptamer-Based Sensors. Anal Chem 2020; 92:14063-14068. [PMID: 32959647 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.0c03109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Recent years have seen the development of a number of biosensor architectures that rely on target binding-induced changes in the rate of electron transfer from an electrode-bound receptor. Most often, the interrogation of these sensors has relied on voltammetric methods, such as square-wave voltammetry, which limit their time resolution to a few seconds. Here, we describe the use of an impedance-based approach, which we have termed electrochemical phase interrogation, as a means of collecting high time resolution measurements with sensors in this class. Specifically, using changes in the electrochemical phase to monitor target binding in an electrochemical-aptamer based (EAB) sensor, we achieve subsecond temporal resolution and multihour stability in measurements performed directly in undiluted whole blood. Electrochemical phase interrogation also offers improved insights into EAB sensors' signaling mechanism. By modeling the interfacial resistance and capacitance using equivalent circuits, we find that the only parameter that is altered by target binding is the charge-transfer resistance. This confirms previous claims that binding-induced changes in electron-transfer kinetics drive signaling in this class of sensors. Considering that a wide range of electrochemical biosensor architectures rely on this signaling mechanism, we believe that electrochemical phase interrogation may prove generalizable toward subsecond measurements of molecular targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex M Downs
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States.,Center for Bioengineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Julian Gerson
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Kyle L Ploense
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
| | - Kevin W Plaxco
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States.,Center for Bioengineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States.,Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
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5
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Ploense KL, Dauphin-Ducharme P, Arroyo-Curras N, Williams S, Schwarz N, Kippin T, Plaxco KW. Real‐time pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic measurements of drugs within the brains of freely behaving rats. FASEB J 2020. [DOI: 10.1096/fasebj.2020.34.s1.07174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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6
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Dauphin-Ducharme P, Yang K, Arroyo-Currás N, Ploense KL, Zhang Y, Gerson J, Kurnik M, Kippin TE, Stojanovic MN, Plaxco KW. Electrochemical Aptamer-Based Sensors for Improved Therapeutic Drug Monitoring and High-Precision, Feedback-Controlled Drug Delivery. ACS Sens 2019; 4:2832-2837. [PMID: 31556293 PMCID: PMC6886665 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.9b01616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The electrochemical aptamer-based (E-AB) sensing platform appears to be a convenient (rapid, single-step, and calibration-free) and modular approach to measure concentrations of specific molecules (irrespective of their chemical reactivity) directly in blood and even in situ in the living body. Given these attributes, the platform may thus provide significant opportunities to render therapeutic drug monitoring (the clinical practice in which dosing is adjusted in response to plasma drug measurements) as frequent and convenient as the measurement of blood sugar has become for diabetics. The ability to measure arbitrary molecules in the body in real time could even enable closed-loop feedback control over plasma drug levels in a manner analogous to the recently commercialized controlled blood sugar systems. As initial exploration of this, we describe here the selection of an aptamer against vancomycin, a narrow therapeutic window antibiotic for which therapeutic monitoring is a critical part of the standard of care, and its adaptation into an electrochemical aptamer-based (E-AB) sensor. Using this sensor, we then demonstrate: (i) rapid (seconds) and convenient (single-step and calibration-free) measurement of plasma vancomycin in finger-prick-scale samples of whole blood, (ii) high-precision measurement of subject-specific vancomycin pharmacokinetics (in a rat animal model), and (iii) high-precision, closed-loop feedback control over plasma levels of the drug (in a rat animal model). The ability to not only track (with continuous-glucose-monitor-like measurement frequency and convenience) but also actively control plasma drug levels provides an unprecedented route toward improving therapeutic drug monitoring and, more generally, the personalized, high-precision delivery of pharmacological interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philippe Dauphin-Ducharme
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Center for Bioengineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Kyungae Yang
- Center for Innovative Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approaches, Department of Medicine, Columbia University, New York, New York 10032, United States
| | - Netzahualcóyotl Arroyo-Currás
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, United States
| | - Kyle L. Ploense
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Center for Bioengineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Yameng Zhang
- Center for Innovative Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approaches, Department of Medicine, Columbia University, New York, New York 10032, United States
| | - Julian Gerson
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Neuroscience Research Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Martin Kurnik
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Center for Bioengineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Tod E. Kippin
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Neuroscience Research Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Milan N. Stojanovic
- Center for Innovative Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approaches, Department of Medicine, Columbia University, New York, New York 10032, United States
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Systems Biology, Columbia University, New York, New York 10032, United States
| | - Kevin W. Plaxco
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Center for Bioengineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
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7
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Idili A, Arroyo-Currás N, Ploense KL, Csordas AT, Kuwahara M, Kippin TE, Plaxco KW. Seconds-resolved pharmacokinetic measurements of the chemotherapeutic irinotecan in situ in the living body. Chem Sci 2019; 10:8164-8170. [PMID: 31673321 PMCID: PMC6788505 DOI: 10.1039/c9sc01495k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2019] [Accepted: 07/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability to measure drugs in the body rapidly and in real time would advance both our understanding of pharmacokinetics and our ability to optimally dose and deliver pharmacological therapies. To this end, we are developing electrochemical aptamer-based (E-AB) sensors, a seconds-resolved platform technology that, as critical for performing measurements in vivo, is reagentless, reversible, and selective enough to work when placed directly in bodily fluids. Here we describe the development of an E-AB sensor against irinotecan, a member of the camptothecin family of cancer chemotherapeutics, and its adaptation to in vivo sensing. To achieve this we first re-engineered (via truncation) a previously reported DNA aptamer against the camptothecins to support high-gain E-AB signaling. We then co-deposited the modified aptamer with an unstructured, redox-reporter-modified DNA sequence whose output was independent of target concentration, rendering the sensor's signal gain a sufficiently strong function of square-wave frequency to support kinetic-differential-measurement drift correction. The resultant, 200 μm-diameter, 3 mm-long sensor achieves 20 s-resolved, multi-hour measurements of plasma irinotecan when emplaced in the jugular veins of live rats, thus providing an unprecedentedly high-precision view into the pharmacokinetics of this class of chemotherapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Idili
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , University of California, Santa Barbara , Santa Barbara , CA 93106 , USA .
- Center for Bioengineering , University of California, Santa Barbara , Santa Barbara , CA 93106 , USA
| | - Netzahualcóyotl Arroyo-Currás
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences , Johns Hopkins School of Medicine , Baltimore , Maryland 21205 , USA
| | - Kyle L Ploense
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , University of California, Santa Barbara , Santa Barbara , CA 93106 , USA .
- Center for Bioengineering , University of California, Santa Barbara , Santa Barbara , CA 93106 , USA
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences , University of California, Santa Barbara , Santa Barbara , CA 93106 , USA
| | - Andrew T Csordas
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , University of California, Santa Barbara , Santa Barbara , CA 93106 , USA .
- Center for Bioengineering , University of California, Santa Barbara , Santa Barbara , CA 93106 , USA
| | - Masayasu Kuwahara
- Graduate School of Integrated Basic Sciences , Nihon University , 3-25-40 Sakurajosui, Setagaya-ku , Tokyo 156-8550 , Japan
| | - Tod E Kippin
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences , University of California, Santa Barbara , Santa Barbara , CA 93106 , USA
- Department of Molecular Cellular and Developmental Biology , University of California, Santa Barbara , Santa Barbara , CA 93106 , USA
- Department of Neuroscience Research Institute , University of California, Santa Barbara , Santa Barbara , CA 93106 , USA
| | - Kevin W Plaxco
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , University of California, Santa Barbara , Santa Barbara , CA 93106 , USA .
- Center for Bioengineering , University of California, Santa Barbara , Santa Barbara , CA 93106 , USA
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8
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Curtis SD, Ploense KL, Kurnik M, Ortega G, Parolo C, Kippin TE, Plaxco KW, Arroyo-Currás N. Open Source Software for the Real-Time Control, Processing, and Visualization of High-Volume Electrochemical Data. Anal Chem 2019; 91:12321-12328. [PMID: 31462040 PMCID: PMC7336365 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b02553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Electrochemical sensors
are major players in the race for improved
molecular diagnostics due to their convenience, temporal resolution,
manufacturing scalability, and their ability to support real-time
measurements. This is evident in the ever-increasing number of health-related
electrochemical sensing platforms, ranging from single-measurement
point-of-care devices to wearable devices supporting immediate and
continuous monitoring. In support of the need for such systems to
rapidly process large data volumes, we describe here an open-source,
easily customizable, multiplatform compatible program for the real-time
control, processing, and visualization of electrochemical data. The
software’s architecture is modular and fully documented, allowing
the easy customization of the code to support the processing of voltammetric
(e.g., square-wave and cyclic) and chronoamperometric data. The program,
which we have called Software for the Analysis and Continuous Monitoring of Electrochemical Systems (SACMES), also includes a graphical interface
allowing the user to easily change analysis parameters (e.g., signal/noise
processing, baseline correction) in real-time. To demonstrate the
versatility of SACMES we use it here to analyze the real-time data
output by (1) the electrochemical, aptamer-based measurement of a
specific small-molecule target, (2) a monoclonal antibody-detecting
DNA-scaffold sensor, and (3) the determination of the folding thermodynamics
of an electrode-attached, redox-reporter-modified protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel D Curtis
- Center for Bioengineering , University of California Santa Barbara , Santa Barbara , California 93106 , United States.,Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences , Johns Hopkins School of Medicine , Baltimore , Maryland 21205 , United States
| | - Kyle L Ploense
- Center for Bioengineering , University of California Santa Barbara , Santa Barbara , California 93106 , United States
| | - Martin Kurnik
- Center for Bioengineering , University of California Santa Barbara , Santa Barbara , California 93106 , United States.,Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , University of California Santa Barbara , Santa Barbara , California 93106 , United States
| | - Gabriel Ortega
- Center for Bioengineering , University of California Santa Barbara , Santa Barbara , California 93106 , United States.,Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , University of California Santa Barbara , Santa Barbara , California 93106 , United States
| | - Claudio Parolo
- Center for Bioengineering , University of California Santa Barbara , Santa Barbara , California 93106 , United States.,Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , University of California Santa Barbara , Santa Barbara , California 93106 , United States
| | - Tod E Kippin
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences , University of California Santa Barbara , Santa Barbara , California 93106 , United States.,Neuroscience Research Institute , University of California Santa Barbara , Santa Barbara , California 93106 , United States.,Department of Molecular Cellular and Developmental Biology , University of California Santa Barbara , Santa Barbara , California 93106 , United States
| | - Kevin W Plaxco
- Center for Bioengineering , University of California Santa Barbara , Santa Barbara , California 93106 , United States.,Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , University of California Santa Barbara , Santa Barbara , California 93106 , United States
| | - Netzahualcóyotl Arroyo-Currás
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences , Johns Hopkins School of Medicine , Baltimore , Maryland 21205 , United States
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9
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Arroyo-Currás N, Ortega G, Copp DA, Ploense KL, Plaxco ZA, Kippin TE, Hespanha JP, Plaxco KW. High-Precision Control of Plasma Drug Levels Using Feedback-Controlled Dosing. ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci 2018; 1:110-118. [PMID: 32219207 PMCID: PMC7088981 DOI: 10.1021/acsptsci.8b00033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
By, in effect, rendering pharmacokinetics an experimentally adjustable parameter, the ability to perform feedback-controlled dosing informed by high-frequency in vivo drug measurements would prove a powerful tool for both pharmacological research and clinical practice. Efforts to this end, however, have historically been thwarted by an inability to measure in vivo drug levels in real time and with sufficient convenience and temporal resolution. In response, we describe a closed-loop, feedback-controlled delivery system that uses drug level measurements provided by an in vivo electrochemical aptamer-based (E-AB) sensor to adjust dosing rates every 7 s. The resulting system supports the maintenance of either constant or predefined time-varying plasma drug concentration profiles in live rats over many hours. For researchers, the resultant high-precision control over drug plasma concentrations provides an unprecedented opportunity to (1) map the relationships between pharmacokinetics and clinical outcomes, (2) eliminate inter- and intrasubject metabolic variation as a confounding experimental variable, (3) accurately simulate human pharmacokinetics in animal models, and (4) measure minute-to-minute changes in a drug's pharmacokinetic behavior in response to changing health status, diet, drug-drug interactions, or other intrinsic and external factors. In the clinic, feedback-controlled drug delivery would improve our ability to accurately maintain therapeutic drug levels in the face of large, often unpredictable intra- and interpatient metabolic variation. This, in turn, would improve the efficacy and safety of therapeutic intervention, particularly for the most gravely ill patients, for whom metabolic variability is highest and the margin for therapeutic error is smallest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Netzahualcóyotl Arroyo-Currás
- Department
of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, United States,E-mail: . Tel.: (410) 955-3569
| | - Gabriel Ortega
- ‡Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, §Center for Bioengineering, ⊥Center for Control,
Dynamical Systems, and Computation, #Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, and ∇The Neuroscience
Research Institute and Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental
Biology, University of California Santa
Barbara, Santa
Barbara, California 93106, United States,CIC
bioGUNE, Bizkaia Technology Park, Ed. 801A, 48160, Derio, Spain
| | - David A. Copp
- ‡Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, §Center for Bioengineering, ⊥Center for Control,
Dynamical Systems, and Computation, #Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, and ∇The Neuroscience
Research Institute and Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental
Biology, University of California Santa
Barbara, Santa
Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Kyle L. Ploense
- ‡Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, §Center for Bioengineering, ⊥Center for Control,
Dynamical Systems, and Computation, #Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, and ∇The Neuroscience
Research Institute and Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental
Biology, University of California Santa
Barbara, Santa
Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Zoe A. Plaxco
- ‡Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, §Center for Bioengineering, ⊥Center for Control,
Dynamical Systems, and Computation, #Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, and ∇The Neuroscience
Research Institute and Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental
Biology, University of California Santa
Barbara, Santa
Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Tod E. Kippin
- ‡Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, §Center for Bioengineering, ⊥Center for Control,
Dynamical Systems, and Computation, #Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, and ∇The Neuroscience
Research Institute and Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental
Biology, University of California Santa
Barbara, Santa
Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - João P. Hespanha
- ‡Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, §Center for Bioengineering, ⊥Center for Control,
Dynamical Systems, and Computation, #Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, and ∇The Neuroscience
Research Institute and Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental
Biology, University of California Santa
Barbara, Santa
Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Kevin W. Plaxco
- ‡Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, §Center for Bioengineering, ⊥Center for Control,
Dynamical Systems, and Computation, #Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, and ∇The Neuroscience
Research Institute and Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental
Biology, University of California Santa
Barbara, Santa
Barbara, California 93106, United States,E-mail: . Tel.: (805) 893-5558
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10
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Ploense KL, Li X, Baker-Andresen D, Carr AE, Woodward N, Bagley J, Szumlinski KK, Bredy TW, Kippin TE. Prolonged-access to cocaine induces distinct Homer2 DNA methylation, hydroxymethylation, and transcriptional profiles in the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex of Male Sprague-Dawley rats. Neuropharmacology 2018; 143:299-305. [PMID: 30268522 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2018.09.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2018] [Revised: 09/17/2018] [Accepted: 09/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Repeated cocaine administration induces many long-term structural and molecular changes in the dorsal medial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC) and are known to underlie aspects of cocaine-seeking behavior. DNA methylation is a key long-lasting epigenetic determinant of gene expression and is implicated in neuroplasticity, however, the extent to which this epigenetic modification is involved in the neuroplasticity associated with drug addiction has received limited attention. Here, we examine the relation between DNA methylation and gene expression within the dorsal medial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC) following limited cocaine self-administration (1 h/day), prolonged cocaine self-administration (6 h/day), and saline self-administration (1 h/day). Rats were fitted with intravenous catheters and allowed to lever press for saline or cocaine (0.25 mg/kg/0.1 mL infusion) in the different access conditions for 20 days. Prolonged-access rats exhibited escalation in cocaine intake over the course of training, while limited-access rats did not escalate cocaine intake. Additionally, limited-access and prolonged-access rats exhibited unique Homer2 epigenetic profiles and mRNA expression. In prolonged-access rats, Homer2 mRNA levels in the dmPFC were increased, which was accompanied by decreased DNA methylation and p300 binding within the Homer2 promoter. Limited-access animals exhibited decreased DNA methylation, decreased DNA hydroxymethylation, and increased p300 binding within the Homer2 promoter. These data indicate that distinct epigenetic profiles are induced by limited-versus prolonged-access self-administration conditions that contribute to transcriptional profiles and lend support to the notion that covalent modification of DNA is implicated in addiction-like changes in cocaine-seeking behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle L Ploense
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA; Institute for Collaborative Biotechnology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA; Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA.
| | - Xiang Li
- Queensland Brain Institute, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | | | - Amanda E Carr
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - Nick Woodward
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - Jared Bagley
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA; Department of Psychology, Binghamton University, Binghamton, NY, USA
| | - Karen K Szumlinski
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA; Neuroscience Research Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA; Department of Molecular Cellular Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - Timothy W Bredy
- Queensland Brain Institute, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | - Tod E Kippin
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA; Neuroscience Research Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA; Department of Molecular Cellular Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA; Institute for Collaborative Biotechnology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
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11
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Ploense KL, Vieira P, Bubalo L, Olivarria G, Carr AE, Szumlinski KK, Kippin TE. Contributions of prolonged contingent and non-contingent cocaine exposure to escalation of cocaine intake and glutamatergic gene expression. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2018; 235:1347-1359. [PMID: 29234834 PMCID: PMC5924572 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-017-4798-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2017] [Accepted: 11/01/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Similar to the pattern observed in people with substance abuse disorders, laboratory animals will exhibit escalation of cocaine intake when the drug is available over prolonged periods of time. Here, we investigated the contribution of behavioral contingency of cocaine administration on escalation of cocaine intake and gene expression in the dorsal medial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC) in adult male rats. Rats were allowed to self-administer intravenous cocaine (0.25 mg/infusion) under either limited cocaine-(1 h/day), prolonged cocaine-(6 h/day), or limited cocaine-(1 h/day) plus yoked cocaine-access (5 h/day); a control group received access to saline (1 h/day). One day after the final self-administration session, the rats were euthanized and the dmPFC was removed for quantification of mRNA expression of critical glutamatergic signaling genes, Homer2, Grin1, and Dlg4, as these genes and brain region have been previously implicated in addiction, learning, and memory. All groups with cocaine-access showed escalated cocaine intake during the first 10 min of each daily session, and within the first 1 h of cocaine administration. Additionally, the limited-access + yoked group exhibited more non-reinforced lever responses during self-administration sessions than the other groups tested. Lastly, Homer2, Grin1, and Dlg4 mRNA were impacted by both duration and mode of cocaine exposure. Only prolonged-access rats exhibited increases in mRNA expression for Homer2, Grin1, and Dlg4 mRNA. Taken together, these findings indicate that both contingent and non-contingent "excessive" cocaine exposure supports escalation behavior, but the behavioral contingency of cocaine-access has distinct effects on the patterning of operant responsiveness and changes in mRNA expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle L Ploense
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106-9660, USA.
| | - Philip Vieira
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106-9660, USA
- Department of Psychology, California State University-Dominguez Hills, Carson, CA, 90747, USA
| | - Lana Bubalo
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106-9660, USA
| | - Gema Olivarria
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106-9660, USA
| | - Amanda E Carr
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106-9660, USA
| | - Karen K Szumlinski
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106-9660, USA
- Neuroscience Research Institute, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA
- Department of Molecular Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA
| | - Tod E Kippin
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106-9660, USA
- Neuroscience Research Institute, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA
- Department of Molecular Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA
- Institute for Collaborative Biotechnologies, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA
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12
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Ploense KL, Vieira P, Carr A, Purpura M, Kippin T. The effect of cocaine cue re‐exposure after prolonged cocaine self‐administration and forced abstinence on DNA methylation and mRNA expression in the rat dmPFC. FASEB J 2018. [DOI: 10.1096/fasebj.2018.32.1_supplement.782.13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Amanda Carr
- Psych & Brain SciencesUC Santa BarbaraSanta BarbaraCA
| | - Mari Purpura
- Psych & Brain SciencesUC Santa BarbaraSanta BarbaraCA
| | - Tod Kippin
- Psych & Brain SciencesUC Santa BarbaraSanta BarbaraCA
- Neuroscience Research InstituteUC Santa BarbaraSanta BarbaraCA
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13
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Arroyo-Currás N, Dauphin-Ducharme P, Ortega G, Ploense KL, Kippin TE, Plaxco KW. Subsecond-Resolved Molecular Measurements in the Living Body Using Chronoamperometrically Interrogated Aptamer-Based Sensors. ACS Sens 2018; 3:360-366. [PMID: 29124939 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.7b00787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Electrochemical, aptamer-based (E-AB) sensors support the continuous, real-time measurement of specific small molecules directly in situ in the living body over the course of many hours. They achieve this by employing binding-induced conformational changes to alter electron transfer from a redox-reporter-modified, electrode-attached aptamer. Previously we have used voltammetry (cyclic, alternating current, and square wave) to monitor this binding-induced change in transfer kinetics indirectly. Here, however, we demonstrate the potential advantages of employing chronoamperometry to measure the change in kinetics directly. In this approach target concentration is reported via changes in the lifetime of the exponential current decay seen when the sensor is subjected to a potential step. Because the lifetime of this decay is independent of its amplitude (e.g., insensitive to variations in the number of aptamer probes on the electrode), chronoamperometrically interrogated E-AB sensors are calibration-free and resistant to drift. Chronoamperometric measurements can also be performed in a few hundred milliseconds, improving the previous few-second time resolution of E-AB sensing by an order of magnitude. To illustrate the potential value of the approach we demonstrate here the calibration-free measurement of the drug tobramycin in situ in the living body with 300 ms time resolution and unprecedented, few-percent precision in the determination of its pharmacokinetic phases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Gabriel Ortega
- CIC bioGUNE, Bizkaia Technology Park, Ed
801 A, 48160, Derio, Spain
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14
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Arroyo-Currás N, Scida K, Ploense KL, Kippin TE, Plaxco KW. High Surface Area Electrodes Generated via Electrochemical Roughening Improve the Signaling of Electrochemical Aptamer-Based Biosensors. Anal Chem 2017; 89:12185-12191. [PMID: 29076341 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.7b02830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The electrochemical, aptamer-based (E-AB) sensor platform provides a modular approach to the continuous, real-time measurement of specific molecular targets (irrespective of their chemical reactivity) in situ in the living body. To achieve this, however, requires the fabrication of sensors small enough to insert into a vein, which, for the rat animal model we employ, entails devices less than 200 μm in diameter. The limited surface area of these small devices leads, in turn, to low faradaic currents and poor signal-to-noise ratios when deployed in the complex, fluctuating environments found in vivo. In response we have developed an electrochemical roughening approach that enhances the signaling of small electrochemical sensors by increasing the microscopic surface area of gold electrodes, allowing in this case more redox-reporter-modified aptamers to be packed onto the surface, thus producing significantly improved signal-to-noise ratios. Unlike previous approaches to achieving microscopically rough gold surfaces, our method employs chronoamperometric pulsing in a 5 min etching process easily compatible with batch manufacturing. Using these high surface area electrodes, we demonstrate the ability of E-AB sensors to measure complete drug pharmacokinetic profiles in live rats with precision of better than 10% in the determination of drug disposition parameters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Netzahualcóyotl Arroyo-Currás
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Santa Barbara , Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States.,Center for Bioengineering, University of California Santa Barbara , Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Karen Scida
- Mechanical Engineering Department, University of California Santa Barbara , Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Kyle L Ploense
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California Santa Barbara , Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Tod E Kippin
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California Santa Barbara , Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States.,The Neuroscience Research Institute and Department of Molecular Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of California Santa Barbara , Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Kevin W Plaxco
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Santa Barbara , Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States.,Center for Bioengineering, University of California Santa Barbara , Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
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15
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Ben-Shahar OM, Szumlinski KK, Lominac KD, Cohen A, Gordon E, Ploense KL, DeMartini J, Bernstein N, Rudy NM, Nabhan AN, Sacramento A, Pagano K, Carosso GA, Woodward N. Extended access to cocaine self-administration results in reduced glutamate function within the medial prefrontal cortex. Addict Biol 2012; 17:746-57. [PMID: 22339852 DOI: 10.1111/j.1369-1600.2011.00428.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies have shown that brief access to cocaine yields an increase in D2 receptor binding in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), but that extended access to cocaine results in normalized binding of D2 receptors (i.e. the D2 binding returned to control levels). Extended-access conditions have also been shown to produce increased expression of the NR2 subunit of the N-Methyl-D-aspartate receptor in the mPFC. These results implicate disrupted glutamate and dopamine function within this area. Therefore, in the present study, we monitored glutamate and dopamine content within the mPFC during, or 24 hours after, cocaine self-administration in animals that experienced various amounts of exposure to the drug. Naïve subjects showed decreased glutamate and increased dopamine levels within the mPFC during cocaine self-administration. Exposure to seven 1-hour daily cocaine self-administration sessions did not alter the response to self-administered cocaine, but resulted in decreased basal dopamine levels. While exposure to 17 1-hour sessions also resulted in reduced basal dopamine levels, these animals showed increased dopaminergic, but completely diminished glutamatergic, response to self-administered cocaine. Finally, exposure to 17 cocaine self-administration sessions, the last 10 of which being 6-hour sessions, resulted in diminished glutamatergic response to self-administered cocaine and reduced basal glutamate levels within the mPFC while normalizing (i.e. causing a return to control levels) both the dopaminergic response to self-administered cocaine as well as basal dopamine levels within this area. These data demonstrate directly that the transition to escalated cocaine use involves progressive changes in dopamine and glutamate function within the mPFC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Osnat M Ben-Shahar
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California at Santa Barbara, 93106-9660, USA.
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