Frequency of pertinent MRI abnormalities of the sacroiliac joints of patients without spondyloarthropathies: a systematic review of the literature

INTRODUCTION

MRI criteria are central to the diagnosis of non-radiographic axial spondyloarthropathy (nr-axSpA). The cardinal feature of nr-axSpa is inflammatory low back pain, which may be difficult to distinguish from highly prevalent non-specific low back pain. This study aims to determine the frequency of relevant MRI findings in the sacroiliac joints (SIJ) of patients without Spondyloarthropathy (SpA), and therefore estimate the specificity of MRI scans for SpA.

METHODS

EMBASE and Medline were searched and limited to English. Titles were screened for relevance, with studies that included primary MRI findings in patients without SpA triggering retrieval. Retrieved papers were reviewed, data extracted by two authors and quality criteria (QUADAS 2) were applied. Findings were considered for asymptomatic and symptomatic individuals.

RESULTS

The search recovered 2172 articles. Abstracts of 117 were reviewed for full text retrieval, 11 papers met eligibility criteria. These papers described MRI findings of 1180 asymptomatic patients and 1318 with low back symptoms but without SpA. In relevant populations, bone marrow oedema was found in 22% (95% CI 19-25) of asymptomatic and 20% (95% CI 18-22) of asymptomatic individuals. In all non-Spa patients, sclerosis was found in 13.4% and erosions in 6.5%.

CONCLUSIONS

There is a significant frequency of diagnostically pertinent MRI abnormalities in the SIJ of patients without SpA. These are present in both asymptomatic and symptomatic individuals. Findings, such as oedema and sclerosis, lack specificity and should be interpreted with caution. Erosions are less frequent and are likely more specific for SpA.

Detection of aseptic loosening in total knee replacements: a systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to compare the diagnostic accuracy of nuclear imaging modalities in the detection of aseptic loosening of total knee arthroplasty (TKA).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

MEDLINE, EMBASE, and the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews were searched from database inception to December 2018 in accordance with Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Included studies compared the results of a single imaging modality against an appropriate reference standard of prosthetic TKA loosening, with sufficient information to determine either sensitivity and/or specificity. The methodological quality of the studies was assessed using the QUADAS-2 tool.

RESULTS

The search strategy identified 572 abstracts. Of these, 12 studies comprising 401 patients across four modalities (bone scintigraphy, 18F-FDG-PET, SPECT/CT arthrogram, radionuclide arthrogram) met the inclusion criteria. All included studies used operative findings, a period of clinical or radiographic observation or both as a reference standard for aseptic loosening. Sixteen comparisons with the reference standards were extracted. All studies were at risk of bias across patient selection, the index test, reference standard, and flow and timing of patients. The most accurate test for diagnosis of aseptic loosening in TKA was SPECT/CT arthrography demonstrated by the summary receiver operating characteristic curve.

CONCLUSIONS

The best available evidence suggests the most accurate modality for the detection of aseptic loosening in TKA is SPECT/CT arthrography. However, the available evidence has a high risk of bias, and total number of patients studied for each modality is small so further studies are warranted.

Are Hip Precautions Necessary Post Total Hip Arthroplasty? A Systematic Review

Purpose:

Total hip arthroplasty (THA) is a common and effective treatment of hip osteoarthritis. Activity restrictions known as hip precautions are widely practiced in rehabilitation post THA, aiming to foster healing and prevent hip dislocation. The focused clinical question was: Does the application of hip precautions in patients post THA versus unrestricted activities significantly decrease the risk of prosthetic dislocation?

Methods:

A comprehensive literature search was conducted for randomized controlled trials or cohort studies with a comparative group and minimum 6 months follow-up, with dislocation as an end point. Retrieved titles were assessed independently by 2 reviewers for inclusion and underwent standardized data extraction.

Results:

Title search produced 80 potentially relevant articles. Five articles were retrieved for data extraction of which 2 met a prior eligibility criteria. No eligible studies were found that concerned posterior approaches to hip arthroplasty, so the results of this review concern only anterolateral approaches. Neither included study showed any benefit of hip precautions in preventing dislocation.

Conclusion:

The rate of dislocation after anterolateral THA is low and is not improved by hip precautions. Hip precautions are associated with a slower return to activities, significant expense, and decreased patient satisfaction. Existing studies risk being compromised by a type II error, but a definitive study may be prohibitively large and expensive.

Viral arthritis

BACKGROUND

Arthralgia is a common presentation to general practice, and many cases will not require any specific treatment. It is important to differentiate viral arthritis from other causes as early intervention in inflammatory arthritis has been shown to improve long-term outcome.

OBJECTIVE

This article provides a review of the different causes of viral arthritis, with an emphasis on recognising the clues to a viral cause, and summarises appropriate investigations and management.

DISCUSSION

Viral arthritis is typically self-limiting and requires no specific intervention, although in rare cases symptoms can be prolonged. Some viruses have a predilection for the joints, and arthritis is one of the common presenting signs of infection. It may also be a manifestation of important treatable viral infections such as hepatitis and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Early systemic inflammatory arthritis can be difficult to differentiate from viral arthritis and should be actively considered in all patients. Comprehensive testing for viral aetiologies is of limited utility.

What people say about travelling outdoors after their stroke: a qualitative study

BACKGROUND/AIM

Reduced walking ability and loss of confidence are common after stroke. Many people cannot drive or use public transport, which can restrict participation. This qualitative study aimed to explore the experiences and attitudes of people following stroke to travelling outdoors early after hospital discharge.

METHODS

Two semi-structured interviews were conducted with 19 people post-stroke, all of whom were receiving rehabilitation to increase outdoor travel. Mean age was 68.6 years (SD 11.7years). Eight significant others also participated. Interviews were conducted at home (median 21 days post-discharge), with a second interview three months later. Questions focussed on common destinations, modes of travel including driving when relevant and factors that influenced outdoor travel. Qualitative data were analysed using constant comparative (grounded theory) methods, resulting in themes and categories.

RESULTS

People with stroke were categorised as either a hesitant or confident explorer, in relation to walking, catching public transport and driving. Factors influencing outdoor travel included their emotional disposition, having meaningful destinations, expectations of recovery and the sphere of influence, including family and therapists. These factors could have an enabling or restricting effect. A pre-stroke walking habit also positively contributed to outdoor travel. Gate-keeping by therapists, general practitioners and family members seemed to adversely affect travel.

CONCLUSIONS

  This emerging theory offers insights into the experiences and attitudes to outdoor travel of people who were ambulant and participating in community rehabilitation following a stroke. Future research could explore the experiences of people with more severe mobility, cognitive and communication problems.

Metastatic prostatic carcinoma mimicking a unilateral sacroiliitis

We describe a 65-year-old male who presented with unilateral sacroiliitis as the first manifestation of metastatic prostatic carcinoma. When progressive symptoms are unresponsive to conventional therapy, a reconsideration of the diagnosis is necessary with appropriate further imaging studies. We discuss the differential diagnosis of sacroiliitis including, mechanisms of joint involvement in malignancy, and present a review of the literature.

Shock wave therapy for lateral elbow pain

BACKGROUND

This review is one in a series of reviews of interventions for lateral elbow pain.

OBJECTIVES

To determine the effectiveness and safety of extracorporeal shock wave therapy (ESWT) for lateral elbow pain.

SEARCH STRATEGY

Searches of the Cochrane Controlled Trials Register (Cochrane Library Issue 2, 2004), MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, and Science Citation Index (SCISEARCH) were conducted in February 2005, unrestricted by date.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included nine trials that randomised 1006 participants to ESWT or placebo and one trial that randomised 93 participants to ESWT or steroid injection.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

For each trial two independent reviewers assessed the methodological quality and extracted data. Methodological quality criteria included appropriate randomisation, allocation concealment, blinding, number lost to follow up and intention to treat analysis. Where appropriate, pooled analyses were performed. If there was significant heterogeneity between studies or the data reported did not allow statistical pooling, individual trial results were described in the text.

MAIN RESULTS

Eleven of the 13 pooled analyses found no significant benefit of ESWT over placebo. For example, the weighted mean difference for improvement in pain (on a 100-point scale) from baseline to 4-6 weeks from a pooled analysis of three trials (446 participants) was -9.42 (95% CI -20.70 to 1.86) and the weighted mean difference for improvement in pain (on a 100-point scale) provoked by resisted wrist extension (Thomsen test) from baseline to 12 weeks from a pooled analysis of three trials (455 participants) was -9.04 (95% CI -19.37 to 1.28). Two pooled results favoured ESWT. For example, the pooled relative risk of treatment success (at least 50% improvement in pain with resisted wrist extension at 12 weeks) for ESWT in comparison to placebo from a pooled analysis of two trials (192 participants) was 2.2 (95% CI 1.55 to 3.12). However this finding was not supported by the results of four other individual trials that were unable to be pooled. Steroid injection was more effective than ESWT at 3 months after the end of treatment assessed by a reduction of pain of 50% from baseline (21/25 (84%) versus 29/48 (60%), p<0.05). Minimal adverse effects of ESWT were reported. Most commonly these were transient pain, reddening of the skin and nausea and in most cases did not require treatment discontinuation or dosage adjustment.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Based upon systematic review of nine placebo-controlled trials involving 1006 participants, there is "Platinum" level evidence that shock wave therapy provides little or no benefit in terms of pain and function in lateral elbow pain. There is "Silver" level evidence based upon one trial involving 93 participants that steroid injection may be more effective than ESWT.

Acupuncture and electroacupuncture for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis

BACKGROUND

Acupuncture has been used by rehabilitation specialists as an adjunct therapy for the symptomatic treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Acupuncture is a traditional Chinese medicine where thin needles are inserted in specific documented points believed to represent concentration of body energies. In some cases a small electrical impulse is added to the needles. Once the needles are inserted in some of the appropriate points, endorphins, morphine-like substances, have been shown to be released in the patient's system, thus inducing local or generalised analgesia (pain relief). This review is an update of the original review published in July 2002.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the effects of acupuncture or electroacupuncture on the objective and subjective measures of disease activity in patients with RA.

SEARCH STRATEGY

A comprehensive search of MEDLINE, EMBASE, PEDro, Current Contents , Sports Discus and CINAHL, initially done in September 2001, was updated in May 2005. The Cochrane Field of Rehabilitation and Related Therapies and the Cochrane Musculoskeletal Review Group were also contacted for a search of their specialized registries. Handsearching was conducted on all retrieved papers and content experts were contacted to identify additional studies.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Comparative controlled studies, such as randomized controlled trials and controlled clinical trials in patients with RA were eligible. Trials published in languages other than French and English were not analyzed. Abstracts were excluded unless further data could be obtained from the authors.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two independent reviewers identified potential articles from the literature search and extracted data using pre-defined extraction forms. Consensus was reached on all the extracted data. Quality was assessed by two reviewers using a five point validated tool that measured the quality of randomization, double-blinding and description of withdrawals.

MAIN RESULTS

After the updated searches were conducted, five further potential articles were identified; however, these did not meet the inclusion criteria. Two studies involving a total of 84 people were included. One study used acupuncture while the other used electroacupuncture. In the acupuncture study, no statistically significant difference was found between groups for erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), C-reactive protein (CRP), visual analogue scale for patient's global assessment (VAS G), number of swollen joints and tender joints, general health questionnaire (GHQ), modified disease activity scale (DAS) or for the decrease in analgesic intake. Although not statistically significant, pain in the treatment group improved by 4 points on a 0-100mm visual analogue scale versus no improvement in the placebo group. In the second study, using electroacupuncture, a significant decrease in knee pain was reported in the experimental group, 24 hours post treatment, when compared to the placebo group (WMD: -2.0 with 95% CI -3.6,-4.0). A significant decrease was found also at four months post-treatment (WMD -0.2, 95% CI: -0.36, -0.04)

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Although the results of the study on electroacupuncture show that electroacupuncture may be beneficial to reduce symptomatic knee pain in patients with RA 24 hours and 4 months post treatment, the reviewers concluded that the poor quality of the trial, including the small sample size preclude its recommendation. The reviewers further conclude that acupuncture has no effect on ESR, CRP, pain, patient's global assessment, number of swollen joints, number of tender joints, general health, disease activity and reduction of analgesics. These conclusions are limited by methodological considerations such as the type of acupuncture (acupuncture vs electroacupuncture), the site of intervention, the low number of clinical trials and the small sample size of the included studies.

Hypermobility and sports injuries in junior netball players

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the incidence of hypermobility in young female netball players and to determine the relation between hypermobility, previous injuries sustained in netball or other sports, and the use of protective equipment.

METHODS

Under 16 year old female netball players from a local suburban netball association were assessed for joint hypermobility using the validated Beighton score (0-9, with higher scores indicating increasing hypermobility). Player profiles and details of sporting injuries, both netball and non-netball, and the use of protective equipment were gathered by means of a self completed questionnaire. Parental and child consent was obtained.

RESULTS

Two hundred netball players were recruited for the study. Twenty one percent of the subjects with a Beighton hypermobility score of 0-2 had sustained previous netball injuries compared with 37% with Beighton scores of 3-4, and 43% with scores of 5-9. These differences were significant (p<0.025). Injuries were most common in the ankle (42%), knee (27%), and fingers (15%). Thirty nine players (19%) wore protective equipment, and within this group 30 (77%) had sustained previous injuries. No association was detected between hypermobile joints and non-netball sporting injuries.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study hypermobility was significantly associated with an increased prevalence of injuries in junior netball players. A targeted interventional approach may help to reduce injuries in this susceptible group.

Long term outcomes of inversion ankle injuries

BACKGROUND

Ankle sprains are common sporting injuries generally believed to be benign and self limiting. However, some studies report a significant proportion of patients with ankle sprains having persistent symptoms for months or even years.

AIMS

To determine the proportion of patients presenting to an Australian sports medicine clinic who had long term symptoms after a sports related inversion ankle sprain.

METHODS

Consecutive patients referred to the NSW Institute of Sports Medicine from August 1999 to August 2002 with inversion ankle sprain were included. Exclusion criteria were fracture, ankle surgery, or concurrent lower limb problems. A control group, matched for age and sex, was recruited from patients attending the clinic for upper limb injuries in the same time period. Current ankle symptoms, ankle related disability, and current health status were ascertained through a structured telephone interview.

RESULTS

Nineteen patients and matched controls were recruited and interviewed. The mean age in the ankle group was 20 (range 13-28). Twelve patients (63%) were male. Average follow up was 29 months. Only five (26%) ankle injured patients had recovered fully, with no pain, swelling, giving way, or weakness at follow up. None of the control group reported these symptoms (p<0.0001). Assessments of quality of life using short form-36 questionnaires (SF36) revealed a difference in the general health subscale between the two groups, favouring the control arm (p<0.05). There were no significant differences in the other SF36 subscales between the two groups.

CONCLUSION

Most patients who sustained an inversion ankle injury at sport and who were subsequently referred to a sports medicine clinic had persistent symptoms for at least two years after their injury. This reinforces the importance of prevention and early effective treatment.

Rheumatological prescribing in athletes: a review of the new World Anti-Doping Agency guidelines

Rheumatologists, with their musculoskeletal background, often care for athletes. The effect of a positive anti-doping test, whether through illegitimate use or accidental prescribing of banned drugs, is devastating to an athlete's career. It is therefore incumbent upon rheumatologists to be aware of issues relating to drugs in sport. This involves both therapeutic drugs and doping. It is vital to ensure that any substance prescribed should be approved for use and should not adversely affect (or benefit) the athlete's performance. In March 2004, 5 months prior to the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens, the joint World Anti-Doping Agency/International Olympic Committee published the revised list of banned substances in athletes. This article aims to provide an overview of the current status of medications commonly prescribed in rheumatological practice.

Acupuncture for lateral elbow pain

BACKGROUND

This review is one in a series of reviews of interventions for lateral elbow pain. Lateral elbow pain, or tennis elbow, is a common condition causing pain in the elbow and forearm and lack of strength and function of the elbow and wrist. Acupuncture has long been used to treat lateral elbow pain in China and in Western countries practitioners and consumers are increasingly exploring acupuncture as a first line treatment for musculoskeletal disorders. No previous systematic review of the available evidence has been conducted to determine whether acupuncture is efficacious in the treatment lateral elbow pain.

OBJECTIVES

To determine the effectiveness of acupuncture in the treatment of adults with lateral elbow pain with respect to pain reduction, improvement in function, grip strength and adverse effects.

SEARCH STRATEGY

We searched MEDLINE, CINAHL, EMBASE and SCISEARCH and the Cochrane Clinical Trials Register and the Musculoskeletal Review Group's specialist trial database from 1966 to June 2001. Identified keywords and authors were searched in an effort to retrieve as many trials as possible.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Two independent reviewers assessed all identified trials against pre-determined inclusion criteria. Randomised and pseudo randomised trials in all languages were included in the review provided they were testing acupuncture compared to placebo or another intervention in adults with lateral elbow pain (tennis elbow). Outcomes of interest were pain, function, disability, quality of life, strength, participant satisfaction with treatment and adverse effect.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

For continuous variables means and standard deviations were extracted or imputed to allow the analysis of weighted mean difference, while for binary data numbers of events and total population were analysed and interpreted as relative risks. Trial results were combined only in the absence of clinical and statistical heterogeneity.

MAIN RESULTS

Four small randomized controlled trials were included but due to flaws in study designs (particularly small populations, uncertain allocation concealment and substantial loss to follow up) and clinical differences between trials, data from trials could not be combined in a meta-analysis. One randomised controlled trial found that needle acupuncture results in relief of pain for significantly longer than placebo (WMD = 18.8 hours, 95%CI 10.1 to 27.5) and is more likely to result in a 50% or greater reduction in pain after 1 treatment (RR 0.33, 95%CI 0.16 to 0.69) (Molsberger 1994). A second randomized controlled trial demonstrated needle acupuncture to be more likely to result in overall participant reported improvement than placebo in the short term (RR = 0.09 95% CI 0.01 to 0.64) (Haker 1990a). No significant differences were found in the longer term (after 3 or 12 months). A randomized controlled trial of laser acupuncture versus placebo demonstrated no differences between laser acupuncture and placebo with respect to overall benefit (Haker 1990b). A fourth included trial published in Chinese demonstrated no difference between Vitamin B12 injection plus acupuncture, and Vitamin B12 injection alone (Wang 1997).

REVIEWER'S CONCLUSIONS

There is insufficient evidence to either support or refute the use of acupuncture (either needle or laser) in the treatment of lateral elbow pain. This review has demonstrated needle acupuncture to be of short term benefit with respect to pain, but this finding is based on the results of 2 small trials, the results of which were not able to be combined in meta-analysis. No benefit lasting more than 24 hours following treatment has been demonstrated. No trial assessed or commented on potential adverse effect. Further trials, utilising appropriate methods and adequate sample sizes, are needed before conclusions can be drawn regarding the effect of acupuncture on tennis elbow.

Surgery for lateral elbow pain

BACKGROUND

This review is one in a series of reviews of interventions for lateral elbow pain. Lateral elbow pain, or tennis elbow, is a common condition causing pain in the lateral elbow and forearm and lack of strength and function of the elbow and wrist. Surgery is sometimes recommended in treating chronic cases of lateral elbow pain where other less invasive interventions have failed. Various operations have been described based upon the surgeon's concept of the pathological entity. The most described surgical procedures involve release of the extensor carpi radialis brevis (ECRB) from the lateral epicondyle region based upon the premise that there is pathology in the attachment of ECRB to the lateral epicondyle. No systematic review has previously been published assessing the effect of surgical interventions for lateral elbow pain.

OBJECTIVES

To determine the effectiveness of surgical interventions in the treatment of adults with lateral elbow pain.

SEARCH STRATEGY

Comprehensive electronic searches of MEDLINE, CINAHL, EMBASE and SCISEARCH were combined with searches of the Cochrane Clinical Trials Registrar and the Musculoskeletal Review Group's specialist trial database. Identified keywords and authors were researched in an effort to identify as many trials as possible. Searches were conducted up to October 2001.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Two independent reviewers assessed all identified studies against pre-determined inclusion criteria. Randomised and pseudo randomised trials in all languages were to be included in the review provided they were studying the effects of a surgical intervention and included a control as treatment for adults with lateral elbow pain. The control intervention could comprise no treatment or another intervention including an alternate surgical intervention. Outcomes of interest included pain, function, disability and quality of life, strength and adverse effects.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

The planned collection and analysis of data is described.

MAIN RESULTS

Our search did not identify any controlled trials investigating the effect of surgery on lateral elbow pain.

REVIEWER'S CONCLUSIONS

At this time there are no published controlled trials of surgery for lateral elbow pain. Without a control group, it is not possible to draw any conclusions about the value of this modality of treatment.

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) for treating lateral elbow pain in adults

BACKGROUND

Lateral elbow pain, or tennis elbow, is a common condition causing pain in the elbow and forearm and lack of strength and function of the elbow and wrist. It is often treated with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), either orally or by topical application.

OBJECTIVES

To assess effectiveness of NSAIDs (oral or topical) in the treatment of adults with lateral elbow pain with respect to symptom (pain) reduction, improvement in function, grip strength and adverse effects.

SEARCH STRATEGY

We searched the Musculoskeletal Review Group's trials register database, the Cochrane Clinical Trials Register (Cochrane Library issue 2, 2001), MEDLINE, CINAHL, EMBASE and SCISEARCH up to June 2001.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised and pseudo randomised trials in all languages of NSAIDs (oral or topical) compared to placebo or another intervention, or comparing two NSAIDs (oral or topical) to each other, in adults with lateral elbow pain (tennis elbow). Outcomes of interest were pain, function, disability and quality of life, strength, participant satisfaction with treatment and adverse effect.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two reviewers independently applied selection criteria and assessed study quality.

MAIN RESULTS

Fourteen trials were included in the review. Few trials used intention to treat analysis, and the sample size of most was small. The median follow up was 2 weeks (range 1-12 weeks). There is evidence that topical NSAIDs are significantly more effective than placebo with respect to pain [weighted main difference= -1.88, (95% confidence intervals -2.54 to -1.21)] and participant satisfaction [relative risk 0.39, (95% confidence intervals 0.23 to 0.66)] in the short term, and this finding is robust against the possible bias introduced by the inclusion of unblinded trials and publication bias. The adverse effects reported were minor. Only two included trials assessed the effect of oral NSAID and these were not able to be pooled. There is some evidence for short term benefit with respect to pain and function from oral NSAIDs, but this benefit was not sustained. Significantly more gastrointestinal adverse effects were reported by those taking oral NSAIDs [relative risk = 3.17, (95% confidence intervals 1.35 to 7.41)]. In the short term there may be some advantage in steroid injection over oral NSAID [patient's perception of benefit relative risk = 3.06, (95% confidence intervals 1.55 to 6.06)], but this was not sustained in the longer term.

REVIEWER'S CONCLUSIONS

There is some support for the use of topical NSAIDs to relieve lateral elbow pain at least in the short term. There remains insufficient evidence to recommend or discourage the use of oral NSAID, although it appears injection may be more effective than oral NSAID in the short term. A direct comparison between topical and oral NSAID has not been made and so no conclusions can be drawn regarding the best method of administration.

Shock wave therapy for lateral elbow pain

BACKGROUND

This review is one in a series of reviews of interventions for lateral elbow pain. Lateral elbow pain, or tennis elbow, is a common condition causing pain in the elbow and forearm and lack of strength and function of the elbow and wrist. Shock wave therapy (ESWT) involves the application of single pulsed acoustic wave. Since the 1990's reports of benefit of ESWT in the treatment of tendon disorders have been appearing in the literature. A systematic review published in the German language appeared in 2000 (Boddeker 2000)

OBJECTIVES

To determine the effectiveness and safety of ESWT in the treatment of adults with lateral elbow pain.

SEARCH STRATEGY

Comprehensive electronic searches of MEDLINE, CINAHL, EMBASE and SCISEARCH were combined with searches of the Cochrane Clinical Trails Registrar and the Musculoskeletal Review Group's specialist trial database. Identified keywords and authors were searched again in an effort to identify as many trials as possible.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Two independent reviewers assessed all identified trials against pre-determined inclusion criteria. Randomised and pseudo randomised trials in all languages were evaluated for inclusion in the review provided they described individuals with lateral elbow pain and were comparing the use of ESWT as a treatment strategy.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

For continuous variables means and standard deviations were extracted or imputed to allow the analysis of weighted mean difference. Weighted mean difference using a random effects model was selected when outcomes were measured on standard scales. A fixed effects model was used to interpret results and assess heterogeneity. For binary data numbers of events and total population were analysed and interpreted as relative risk.

MAIN RESULTS

Two trials of ESWT versus placebo are included in this review (~~Rompe 1996~~, ~~Haake 2001~~). Both trials included similar study populations consisting of participants with chronic symptoms who had failed other conservative treatment. The frequency of ESWT application and the doses and techniques used were similar in both trials. The first trial demonstrated highly significant differences in favour of ESWT whereas the second trial found no benefits of ESWT over placebo. When the data from the two trials were pooled, the benefits observed in the first trial were no longer statistically significant. The relative risk for treatment failure (defined as Roles-Maudsley score of 4) of ESWT over placebo was 0.40 (95% CI, 0.08 to 1.91) at six weeks and 0.44 (95% CI, 0.09 to 2.17) at one year. After 6 weeks, there was no statistically significant improvement in pain at rest [WMD pain out of 100 = - 11.40 (95% CI, -26.10 to 3.30)], pain with resisted wrist extension [WMD pain out of 100 = -16.20 (95% CI, -47.75 to 15.36)] or pain with resisted middle finger extension [WMD pain out of 100 = -20.51(95% CI, -56.57 to 15.56)]. Results after 12 or 24 weeks were similar.

REVIEWER'S CONCLUSIONS

The two trials included in this review yielded conflicting results. Further trials are needed to clarify the value of ESWT for lateral elbow pain.

Hypertrophic pulmonary osteoarthropathy without clubbing of the digits

Hypertrophic osteoarthropathy (HOA) typically occurs concurrently with clubbing of the digits, with isolated HOA being reported only rarely. We report two patients with intra-thoracic malignancy in whom HOA, demonstrated on bone scintigraphy, developed in the absence of clubbing. We also report the novel observation of involvement of the metatarsal and metacarpal bones by HOA.

Pain referral from the sternoclavicular joint: a study in normal volunteers

OBJECTIVE

The sternoclavicular joint (SCJ) is commonly affected by rheumatological conditions. Case reports suggest that it may refer pain to distant areas, potentially leading to delays in diagnosis and inappropriately targeted investigations. Therefore, we studied the patterns of pain referral from the SCJ of nine healthy volunteers.

METHODS

Hypertonic saline was injected into the SCJ of nine normal volunteers and the location of any resulting pain was noted, as was the effect of resisted shoulder abduction and flexion. Composite pain maps were then constructed from individual pain diagrams.

RESULTS

An unpleasant, deep aching pain was produced locally in eight subjects and referred to distant sites in all subjects. Tests of shoulder movement had varied and inconstant effects.

CONCLUSIONS

We demonstrated that the SCJ is capable of referring pain to areas distant from the joint. Knowledge of these referral patterns will enable the SCJ to be considered in patients with pain in these areas.

Clinical skills in early postgraduate medical trainees: patterns of acquisition of confidence and experience among junior doctors in a university teaching hospital

BACKGROUND

Little is known about patterns of clinical skills acquisition among junior doctors undertaking clinical training in the early postgraduate period. A better understanding would assist in the design of effective educational interventions for this group.

METHODS

We conducted a cross-sectional survey of the levels of confidence and experience with a broad raft of clinical skills among early PGY1 trainees (interns), PGY2s and PGY3s within a university teaching hospital network in Sydney at the beginning of the clinical year in 1999. The instrument was a new validated 69 item questionnaire. A total of 92 respondents took part, representing 100% of the PGY1 (n=36), PGY2 (n=31) and PGY3 (n=25) cohorts.

RESULTS

Commencing interns reported high confidence levels with a small group of practical skills but less confidence with clinical management skills. Significant positive differences were found for confidence with all skill areas between early PGY1 and PGY3. We identified three patterns for skills acquisition. Pattern A was the most common, with a significant difference in levels of confidence and experience between PGY1 and PGY2 but not between PGY2 and PGY3 (e.g. suturing a simple laceration). In Pattern B, significant differences were found in levels of confidence and experience between PGY1 and PGY2 as well as between PGY2 and PGY3 (e.g. cardiopulmonary resuscitation). In Pattern C, significant differences were found in levels of experience between PGY2 and PGY3 but not between PGY1 and PGY2 (e.g. endotracheal intubation). There was a significant correlation between reported confidence and experience for all skill areas.

CONCLUSIONS

Early postgraduate medical trainees in a Sydney teaching hospital acquire high levels of confidence and experience in most skill areas after two years of training. The first postgraduate year is particularly significant for the development of clinical skills.

The psychological profiles of patients with whiplash-associated headache

Headache often compounds chronic neck pain following whiplash injury. To better understand post-traumatic headache, the SCL-90-R symptom checklist was used to determine the psychological profiles of patients with whiplash-associated headache and of patients with whiplash-associated neck pain without headache. The psychological profiles of these patients were compared with previously published SCL-90-R profiles of patients with post-traumatic and nontraumatic headache, and of the normal population. Patients with whiplash-associated headache were not significantly different from those with other forms of post-traumatic headache or with whiplash-associated neck pain without headache. However, when patients with whiplash-associated headache and patients with nontraumatic headache were compared to normal data, significant differences emerged. Patients with nontraumatic headache exhibited higher scores on all subscales, whereas patients with whiplash-associated headache differed from the normal sample only on somatization, obsessive-compulsive, depression and hostility subscales, and the global severity index. These differences imply that patients with whiplash-associated headache suffer psychological distress secondary to chronic pain and not from tension headache and generalized psychological distress.

Percutaneous radio-frequency neurotomy for chronic cervical zygapophyseal-joint pain

BACKGROUND

Chronic pain in the cervical zygapohyseal joints is a common problem after whiplash injury, but treatment is difficult. Percutaneous radiofrequency neurotomy can relieve the pain by denaturing the nerves innervating the painful joint, but the efficacy of this treatment has not been established.

METHODS

In a randomized, double-blind trial, we compared percutaneous radio-frequency neurotomy in which multiple lesions were made and the temperature of the electrode making the lesions was raised to 80 degrees C with a control treatment using an identical procedure except that the radio-frequency current was not turned on. We studied 24 patients (9 men and 15 women; mean age, 43 years) who had pain in one or more cervical zygapophyseal joints after an automobile accident (median duration of pain, 34 months). The source of their pain had been identified with the use of double-blind, placebo-controlled local anesthesia. Twelve patients received each treatment. The patients were followed by telephone interviews and clinic visits until they reported that their pain had returned to 50 percent of the preoperative level.

RESULTS

The median time that elapsed before the pain returned to at least 50 percent of the preoperative level was 263 days in the active-treatment group and 8 days in the control group (P=0.04). At 27 weeks, seven patients in the active-treatment group and one patient in the control group were free of pain. Five patients in the active-treatment group had numbness in the territory of the treated nerves, but none considered it troubling.

CONCLUSIONS

In patients with chronic cervical zygapophyseal-joint pain confirmed with double-blind, placebo-controlled local anesthesia, percutaneous radio-frequency neurotomy with multiple lesions of target nerves can provide lasting relief.

Chronic cervical zygapophysial joint pain after whiplash. A placebo-controlled prevalence study

STUDY DESIGN

The authors developed a diagnostic double-blindfolded survey using placebo-controlled local anesthetic blocks.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the prevalence of cervical zygapophysial joint pain among patients with chronic neck pain (more than 3 months' duration) after whiplash injury.

SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA

The prevalence of cervical zygapophysial joint pain after whiplash has been studied by means of comparative local anesthetic blocks. The concern is that such blocks may be compromised by placebo responses and that prevalence estimates based on such blocks may exaggerate the importance of this condition.

METHODS

Sixty-eight consecutive patients referred for chronic neck pain after whiplash were studied. Patients with dominant headache were first screened with the use of comparative blocks of the C2-C3 zygapophysial joint. Patients who had positive responses concluded investigations. Those who did not experience pain relief together with the patients with dominant neck pain proceeded to undergo placebo-controlled local anesthetic blocks. Two different local anesthetics and a placebo injection of normal saline were administered in random order and under double-blindfolded conditions. A positive diagnosis was made if the patient's pain was completely and reproducibly relieved by each local anesthetic but not by the placebo injection.

RESULTS

Among patients with dominant headache, comparative blocks revealed that the prevalence of C2-C3 zygapophysial joint pain was 50%. Among those without C2-C3 zygapophysial joint pain, placebo-controlled blocks revealed the prevalence of lower cervical zygapophysial joint pain to be 49%. Overall, the prevalence of cervical zygapophysial joint pain (C2-C3 or below) was 60% (95% confidence interval, 46%, 73%).

CONCLUSION

Cervical zygapophysial joint pain is common among patients with chronic neck pain after whiplash. This nosologic entity has survived challenge with placebo-controlled, diagnostic investigations and has proven to be of major clinical importance.

Pain and psychologic symptoms of Australian patients with whiplash

STUDY DESIGN

A survey of pain intensity and psychological symptoms in patients with chronic neck pain after whiplash injury.

OBJECTIVES

To describe the pain and psychological profiles of patients with chronic whiplash.

SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA

Reports in the literature mention a constellation of symptoms associated with chronic whiplash injury but no systematic survey using objective patient report measures has been reported.

METHODS

One hundred forty consecutive referred patients with chronic neck pain after a motor vehicle accident were studied using the SCL-90-R psychological profile and the McGill Pain Questionnaire.

RESULTS

Psychological profiles and pain intensity ratings, similar to profiles obtained from patients suffering from rheumatoid arthritis and low back pain of organic origin, were obtained.

CONCLUSIONS

The SCL-90-R is a convenient instrument to administer to patients with whiplash. It yielded a characteristic profile of pain and appears to be more expedient than other psychometric tests for these patients.

Frequency of injuries in different age-groups in an elite rugby league club

Injuries are frequent occurrences in Rugby league. It is unclear, however, whether different age groups and grades have different patterns of injury. The frequency of injury in six grades of an elite rugby League Team were studied over a competitive season. There were 374 injuries suffered by 113 different players in 104 games totalling 1540 player-position hours. Minor injuries were the most common type reported, with the older teenage grades having the highest frequency. The Under 19 years team had the highest injury frequency at 405.6 injuries per 1000 player-position hours followed by the Under 17 years team with 343.2 injuries per 1000 player position hours. More severe injuries were most common in the senior grades. First grade players suffered a major or severe injury (resulting in missing at least one subsequent match) with a frequency of 41.2 injuries per 1000 player-position hours. Possible reasons for these differences include age related anthropometric differences, training levels and techniques, muscle mass and physical development, skill acquisition, psychological maturity, playing experience, physical fitness, coaching tactics and frequency of play.

Diagnostic value of C2-3 instantaneous axes of rotation in patients with headache of cervical origin

Previous investigators have suggested that patients suffering headache stemming from the C2-3 segment of the cervical spine can be identified by detecting an abnormal axis of rotation of that segment. The present study tested this hypothesis by correlating the location of the instantaneous axis of rotation (IAR) of the C2-3 segment with diagnostic blocks of the C2-3 zygapophysial joint in a sample of patients with headache. We found no significant correlation between the location of the axis and the response to diagnostic blocks. Previous false-positive assertions appear to be due to insufficient attention to the precision and reproducibility of the techniques used to determine IARs.

The utility of comparative local anesthetic blocks versus placebo-controlled blocks for the diagnosis of cervical zygapophysial joint pain

BACKGROUND

The development of target-specific local anesthetic blocks has enabled pain physicians to explore the anatomical source of chronic spinal pain. However, such blocks rely on subjective responses and may be subject to the placebo effect. Comparative local anesthetic blocks have been advocated as a means of identifying true-positive cases and excluding placebo responders. This paradigm employs two local anesthetics with different durations of action; only patients who obtain reproducible relief and correctly identify the longer-acting agent are considered positive.

OBJECTIVE

Our objective was to evaluate the reliability of comparative blocks of the medial branches of the cervical dorsal rami in the diagnosis of cervical zygapophysial joint pain.

DESIGN

We compared comparative blocks and the criterion-standard of randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled blocks.

SETTING

The study was conducted at a tertiary referral center.

PATIENTS

We studied the first 50 consecutive patients referred for assessment of chronic neck pain (> 3 months' duration) after a motor vehicle accident, who completed a series of placebo-controlled blocks after an initial positive response. Patients were 41 +/- 11 years (mean +/- SD) old with a male/female ratio of 1:2.

METHODS

Patients underwent three blocks using three different agents-lignocaine, bupivacaine, and normal saline--administered on separate occasions, in random order and under double-blind conditions. The diagnostic decision based on comparative blocks alone was compared with that based on placebo-controlled blocks.

RESULTS

Comparative blocks were found to have a specificity of 88%, but only marginal sensitivity (54%). Although comparative blocks result in few false-positive diagnoses, their liability is that they result in a high proportion of false-negative diagnoses. Expanding the comparative blocks diagnostic criteria to include all patients with reproducible relief, irrespective of duration, increases sensitivity to 100% but lowers specificity to 65%.

CONCLUSIONS

Whether physicians use comparative or placebo-controlled blocks depends upon the implications of their results. If innocuous therapy will be prescribed, comparative blocks might suffice. However, when diagnostic certainty is critical, such as in a medicolegal context or when surgical intervention is contemplated, placebo-controlled blocks are recommended.

Percutaneous radiofrequency neurotomy in the treatment of cervical zygapophysial joint pain: a caution

Percutaneous radiofrequency neurotomy has been used in the treatment of pain from the cervical zygapophysial joints, but the results have been modest and not compelling. Several factors might account for its apparent poor success rate, including inadequate patient selection, inaccurate surgical anatomy, and technical errors. In an effort to overcome these confounders, we used comparative local anesthetic blocks to preoperatively, definitively diagnose cervical zygapophysial joint pain and developed an amended operative technique based on formal anatomical studies. An audit was conducted of our experience with 19 patients to determine whether there was sufficient merit in the amended procedure to justify a randomized, double-blind, controlled trial. The duration of complete pain relief was the principal outcome measure. Side effects and complications were also monitored. Of the 10 patients who underwent third occipital neurotomy for the treatment of C2-C3 zygapophysial joint pain, only 4 obtained long-lasting relief. The other six patients reported an early return of their pain and constituted technical failures; the third occipital nerve was inadequately coagulated and recovered in the immediate postoperative period. Of the 10 patients who underwent lower cervical medial branch neurotomy, 7 obtained complete pain relief for clinically useful periods and were able to resume their activities of daily living and employment. After procedures at all levels, a brief period of postoperative pain was experienced by the patients and ataxia was a side effect of third occipital neurotomy. There were no cases of postoperative infection or anesthesia dolorosa. Given the high technical failure rate of third occipital neurotomy, we recommend that this procedure be abandoned until the technical problems can be overcome.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

The prevalence of chronic cervical zygapophysial joint pain after whiplash

STUDY DESIGN

A survey of the prevalence of cervical zygapophysial joint pain was conducted.

OBJECTIVES

To determine the prevalence of cervical zygapophysial joint pain in patients with chronic neck pain after whiplash.

SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA

In a significant proportion of patients with whiplash, chronic, refractory neck pain develops. Provisional data suggest many of these patients have zygapophysial joint pain, but the diagnosis has been established by single, uncontrolled diagnostic blocks.

METHODS

Fifty consecutive, referred patients with chronic neck pain after whiplash injury were studied using double-blind, controlled, diagnostic blocks of the cervical zygapophysial joints. On separate occasions, the joint was blocked with either lignocaine or bupivacaine in random order.

RESULTS

A positive diagnosis was made only if both blocks relieved the patient's pain and bupivacaine provided longer relief. Painful joints were identified in 54% of the patients (95% confidence interval, 40% to 68%).

CONCLUSION

In this population, cervical zygapophysial joint pain was the most common source of chronic neck pain after whiplash.

Third occipital nerve headache: a prevalence study

A consecutive series of 100 patients was studied to determine the prevalence of third occipital nerve headache in patients with chronic neck pain (> three months in duration) after whiplash. Seventy one patients complained of headache associated with their neck pain. Headache was the dominant complaint of 40 patients, but was only a secondary problem for the other 31. Each patient with headache underwent double blind, controlled diagnostic blocks of the third occipital nerve. On two separate occasions the nerve was blocked with either lignocaine or bupivacaine, in random order. The diagnosis of third occipital nerve headache was made only if both blocks completely relieved the patient's upper neck pain and headache and the relief lasted longer with bupivacaine. The prevalence of third occipital nerve headache among all 100 whiplash patients was 27% (95% confidence interval (95% CI) 18-36%) and among those with dominant headache the prevalence was as high as 53% (95% CI 37-68%). There were no distinguishing features on history or examination that enabled a definitive diagnosis to be made before the nerve blocks. Those patients with a positive diagnosis, however, were significantly more likely to be tender over the C2-3 zygapophysial joint (p = 0.01). Third occipital nerve headache is a common condition in patients with chronic neck pain and headache after whiplash. Third occipital nerve blocks are essential to make this diagnosis.

Lack of effect of intraarticular corticosteroids for chronic pain in the cervical zygapophyseal joints

BACKGROUND

Chronic pain in the cervical zygapophyseal joints is a common problem after a whiplash injury. Treatment with intraarticular injections of corticosteroid preparations has been advocated, but the value of this approach has not been established. We compared the efficacy of a depot injection of a corticosteroid preparation with the efficacy of an injection of a local anesthetic agent in patients with painful cervical zygapophyseal joints.

METHODS

Sixteen men and 25 women with pain in one or more cervical zygapophyseal joints after automobile accidents (mean age, 43 years; median duration of pain, 39 months) were randomly assigned to receive an intraarticular injection of either bupivacaine (0.5 percent) or betamethasone (5.7 mg) under double-blind conditions. The patients were followed by means of regular telephone contact and clinic visits until they reported a return to a level of pain equivalent to 50 percent of the preinjection level. The time from treatment to a 50 percent return of pain was compared in the two groups with the use of a survival analysis.

RESULTS

Less than half the patients reported relief of pain for more than one week, and less than one in five patients reported relief for more than one month, irrespective of the treatment received. The median time to a return of 50 percent of the preinjection level of pain was 3 days in the 21 patients in the corticosteroid group and 3.5 days in the 20 patients in the local-anesthetic group (P = 0.42).

CONCLUSIONS

Intraarticular injection of betamethasone is not effective therapy for pain in the cervical zygapophyseal joints after a whiplash injury.

Medial branch blocks are specific for the diagnosis of cervical zygapophyseal joint pain

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

To determine the specificity of cervical medial branch blocks for the diagnosis of cervical zygapophyseal joint pain by ascertaining the disposition of the local anesthetic after injection of the medial branches of the cervical dorsal rami.

METHODS

Sixteen consecutive patients with chronic neck pain from motor vehicle accidents underwent cervical medial branch blocks. A 22-gauge, 90-mm spinal needle was placed onto the target nerve under image-intensifier guidance. Immediately after each target nerve had been infiltrated with 0.5 ml of local anesthetic, 0.5 ml of contrast medium was injected to map the spread of injectate. Radiographs were recorded to document the pattern of spread.

RESULTS

Twenty-five injections of local anesthetic and contrast medium were performed. Contrast medium dispersed in characteristic patterns at all vertebral levels and always incorporated at least 5 mm of the perceived course of the target nerve. There was never any spread to the ventral ramus, beyond the medial fibers of semispinalis capitis or to the adjacent medial branches. No other single structure was consistently within the field of the contrast. Eleven patients obtained complete or definite relief of their pain, which could only be attributed to anesthetization of the zygapophyseal joint innervated by the nerves blocked.

CONCLUSIONS

Local anesthetic blocks of the cervical medial branches are a specific test for the diagnosis of cervical zygapophyseal joint pain. The local anesthetic always reaches the target nerve and does not affect any other diagnostically important structures.

False-positive rates of cervical zygapophysial joint blocks

OBJECTIVE

To determine the false-positive rate of anesthetic blocks of the medial branches of the cervical dorsal rami in the diagnosis of cervical zygapophysial joint pain.

DESIGN

Comparison between single diagnostic blocks, and a criterion standard of double-blind, controlled, differential anesthetic blocks.

SETTING

Tertiary referral center.

PATIENTS

The first 55 consecutive patients with neck pain for > 3 months after and attributable to a motor vehicle accident, and who had completed a second diagnostic block after an initial positive response. A total of 60 joints was studied, with five patients providing two joints each. The mean age was 41 years; 61% were female.

METHODS

Each patient had been investigated with radiologically controlled blocks of the medial branches of the cervical dorsal rami to anesthetize the target cervical zygapophysial joint. The initial block was performed using either 0.5% bupivacaine or 2% lignocaine, randomly selected. The duration of pain relief was assessed in a double-blind fashion. The procedure was repeated with the complementary anesthetic. Only patients experiencing a longer period of pain relief from bupivacaine were considered to have true-positive responses.

RESULTS

The second block failed to relieve pain in two of the tested joints. In a further 14 joints, the control blocks relieved pain, but the patient failed to correctly discriminate the longer acting anesthetic. The remaining 44 joints met the criteria for true-positive responses. The false-positive rate of single blocks was 16 of 60 or 27% (95% confidence interval 15%, 38%).

CONCLUSIONS

Uncontrolled diagnostic blocks are compromised by a significant false-positive rate that seriously detracts from the specificity of the test.

Is the patient with an arthritic neck at risk during endoscopy?

To determine whether upper gastrointestinal endoscopy poses a risk to patients with arthritis of the neck, 486 members of the Gastroenterology Society of Australia were surveyed by postal questionnaire. Replies were obtained from 323 members. More than 1.5 million endoscopies were covered and 11 respondents had experienced major complications related to neck arthritis. With one exception these were perforations of the upper gastrointestinal tract. There were no reports of serious neurological sequelae. Deaths resulted in two cases. We conclude that neck arthritis rarely causes complications from endoscopy.