Identification of the synthetic cannabinoid-type new psychoactive substance, CH-PIACA, in seized material

Synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) remain the largest class of new psychoactive substances (NPS), and while the number of NPS that are reported to the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) for the first time each year declines, the number of newly reported SCs still exceeds other NPS classes. This decline can be seen as a result of legislative changes by different jurisdictions which have sometimes transitioned to a more generalized approach when controlling substances by defining common structural scaffolds rather than explicit structures. While the consequences of such legislative changes have been expected over the years, the introduction of so‐called “class‐wide” bans puts further pressure on clandestine laboratories to synthesize compounds which are out of the scope of the legislation, and thus, these compounds are initially harder to detect and/or identify in the absence of analytical data. Recently, a SC with an indole‐3‐acetamide core‐linker scaffold, AD‐18 (i.e., ADB‐FUBIATA or ADB‐FUBIACA), was reported for the first time in China in 2021. Here, an additional cannabinoid with the indole‐3‐acetamide scaffold, N‐cyclohexyl‐2‐(1‐pentyl‐1H‐indol‐3‐yl)acetamide (CH‐PIACA), is reported which was identified for the first time in a seized material in Denmark. Structural characterization was performed using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS), liquid chromatography‐high‐resolution mass spectrometry (LC‐HRMS), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy.

Purity of street-level cocaine across Denmark from 2006 to 2019: Analysis of seized cocaine

Cocaine-related emergency department admissions are increasing, and cocaine seizures are at an all-time high in Europe. Our aim was to investigate the trends in purity and adulterants over time in cocaine available to cocaine users at street level in Denmark. We used a representative sample of cocaine seized at street level and analyzed by the national departments of forensic medicine between 2006 and 2019 (n = 1460). Latent profile analysis was used to classify the samples based on cocaine, levamisole, and phenacetin content. Low purity cocaine comprised most of the cocaine seizures in early years, but its share began to decline in 2013, and from 2016 to 2019, the high purity profile was dominant. While the total number of samples containing adulterants decreased, levamisole remained a common and dangerous adulterant. The findings underline the need to inform the public, medical doctors, and service providers for people with drug use disorders about the higher potency of street cocaine.

Changes in the composition of cannabis from 2000-2017 in Denmark: Analysis of confiscated samples of cannabis resin

Globally, recent studies report increases in Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) concentration in seized samples of cannabis for human consumption. This is important, because use of cannabis with a high concentration of THC has been linked to a number of adverse health outcomes. The objective of this study was to assess recent changes in the composition of seized cannabis resin in Denmark by (a) examining THC concentration in samples from Danish forensic laboratories from 2000 to 2017 (N = 430) and (b) examining cannabidiol (CBD) concentration and the THC:CBD concentration ratio in samples from the forensic laboratory in Western Denmark from 2008 to 2017 (N = 147). Cannabis resin samples were analyzed using a gas chromatographic analysis with flame ionization detection quantifying the total THC and CBD concentration. Results showed that the THC concentration increased 3-fold from 2000 (mean: 8.3%) to 2017 (mean: 25.3%). Significant increases occurred in all areas of Denmark. After 2011, we found a dramatic increase in cannabis resin samples with high THC concentration and the near disappearance of cannabis resin samples with medium- and low THC concentration. Furthermore, the THC:CBD concentration ratio increased significantly from 1.4 in 2008 to 4.4 in 2017. Whereas THC concentration increased, CBD concentration remained stable at ∼6%. In conclusion, the THC concentration of cannabis resin, and THC:CBD concentration ratio, have increased dramatically in Denmark, potentially leading to higher risk of harm to users. Policymakers, treatment professionals, and educators should be aware of this change. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

In vitro metabolism studies on mephedrone and analysis of forensic cases

The stimulant designer drug mephedrone is a derivative of cathinone - a monoamine alkaloid found in khat - and its effect resembles that of 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). Abuse of mephedrone has been documented since 2007; it was originally a 'legal high' drug, but it has now been banned in most Western countries. Using cDNA-expressed CYP enzymes and human liver microsomal preparations, we found that cytochrome P450 2D6 (CYP2D6) was the main responsible enzyme for the in vitro Phase I metabolism of mephedrone, with some minor contribution from other NAPDH-dependent enzymes. Hydroxytolyl-mephedrone and nor-mephedrone were formed in vitro, and the former was purified and identified by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). In four forensic traffic cases where mephedrone was detected, we identified hydroxytolyl-mephedrone and nor-mephedrone again; as well as 4-carboxy-dihydro-mephedrone, which has been previously described; and two new metabolites: dihydro-mephedrone and 4-carboxy-mephedrone. Fragmentation patterns for all detected compounds were determined by a UPLC-QTOF/MS(E) system, and a fragmentation pathway via a conjugated indole structure was proposed for most of the metabolites. Blood concentrations in the forensic traffic cases ranged from 1 to 51 µg/kg for mephedrone, and from not detected to 9 µg/kg for hydroxytolyl-mephedrone. In one case, urine concentrations were also determined to be 700 µg/kg for mephedrone and 190 µg/kg for hydroxytolyl-mephedrone. All compounds were detected or quantified with an ultra performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) system and an ultra performance liquid chromatography-time of flight/mass spectrometry (UPLC-TOF/MS) system.

Natural attenuation processes in landfill leachate plumes at three Danish sites

This article provides an overview of comprehensive core and fringe field studies at three Danish landfill sites. The goal of the research activities is to provide a holistic description of core and fringe attenuation processes for xenobiotic organic compounds in landfill leachate plumes. The approach used is cross-disciplinary, encompassing integration of field-scale observations at different scales, field injection experiments, laboratory experiments, and reactive solute transport modeling. This is illustrated in examples from the most recently investigated site-the Sjoelund Landfill. The research performed serves as good case studies to conceptualize natural attenuation processes in landfill leachate plumes and also supports the notion that monitored natural attenuation (MNA) may be a possible remediation strategy at landfills. However, landfill leachate plumes challenge traditional approaches and tools used in the application of MNA. In particular, the use of in situ indicators to document mass removal in landfill leachate plumes is emphasized. In this article, we advocate the application of conceptual and numerical models as tools for the integration of data and testing of hypotheses.

Xenobiotic organic compounds in leachates from ten Danish MSW landfills--chemical analysis and toxicity tests

A monitoring program comprising chemical analysis and biological toxicity testing of leachate samples from 10 Danish landfills (six engineered and four uncontrolled) revealed the presence of 55 different xenobiotic organic compounds (XOCs) and 10 degradation products of XOCs. The compounds belong to the following groups: BTEX, C3-benzenes, bicyclo compounds, napthalenes, chlorinated aliphatics, phenols (chloro-, methyl-, dimethyl, nonyl-), pesticides, and phthalates. Concentrations of single XOCs ranged from <0.1 to 2220 microg/L. A pesticide screening including 101 different compounds resulted in detection of 18 pesticides and three degradation products. The findings of degradation products of toluene, phenols, phthalates, pesticides, and nonylphenol ethoxylates show that degradation occurred inside the landfills. In biotests with bacteria and algae it was found that the non-volatile organic compounds were toxic as the samples only needed to be pre-concentrated from 1.3 to 9.4 times to give 50% inhibition of the test organisms. One of the ten samples proved to be genotoxic in the umuC test after 141 times pre-concentration. A major part of the organic chemicals causing toxicity remains unknown and it is recommended to combine chemical analyses and biotests in future monitoring programs.

In situ biodegradation determined by carbon isotope fractionation of aromatic hydrocarbons in an anaerobic landfill leachate plume (Vejen, Denmark)

Concentrations and isotopic compositions (13C/12C) of aromatic hydrocarbons were determined in eight samples obtained from the strongly anoxic part of the leachate plume downgradient from the Vejen Landfill (Denmark), where methanogenic, sulfate-reducing and iron-reducing conditions were observed. Despite the heterogeneous distribution of the compounds in the plume, the isotope fractionation proved that ethylbenzene and m/p-xylene were subject to significant biodegradation within the strongly anoxic plume. The isotope fractionation factors (alphaC) for the degradation of the m/p-xylene (1.0015) and ethylbenzene (1.0021) obtained from the field observations were similar to factors previously determined for the anaerobic degradation of toluene and o-xylene in laboratory experiments, and suggest that in situ biodegradation is one major process controlling the fate of these contaminants in this aquifer. The isotope fractionation determined for 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene and 2-ethyltoluene suggested in situ biodegradation; however, the isotopic composition did not correlate well with the respective concentration as expressed by the Rayleigh equation. Some other compounds (1,2,3-trimethylbenzene, o-xylene, naphthalene and fenchone) did not show significant enrichments in delta13C values along the flow path. The compound concentrations were too low for accurate isotope analyses of benzene, toluene, 1- and 2-methylnaphthalene, while interferences in the chromatography made it impossible to evaluate the isotopic composition for 4-ethyltoluene, 1,3,5-trimethylbenzene and camphor. In addition to demonstrating the potential of assessing isotopic fractionation as a means for documenting the in situ biodegradation of complex mixtures of aromatic hydrocarbons in leachate plumes, this study also illustrates the difficulties for data interpretation in complex plumes and high analytical uncertainties for isotope analysis of organic compounds in low concentration ranges.

Determination of phenols in landfill leachate-contaminated groundwaters by solid-phase extraction

A solid-phase extraction method for phenols in landfill leachates was developed and optimized in order to solve the expected and observed problems associated with an anaerobic matrix containing high concentrations of salts and organic matter. Isolute ENV+ cartridges exhibited the best retention of phenols of the four sorbents examined, and was the only cartridge which a 1 L leachate sample could pass through. With the other cartridges, clogging made this impossible. The final method, which included 27 different phenols, gave detection limits of <0.1 microg/L (drinking water concentration limit for pesticides) for most phenols (25), and for 12 phenols <0.01 microg/L. Recovery rates (determined for four concentrations in the range 1-25 microg/L, two replicates of each) were in the range 79-104% (SD 1-12%), except for phenol (26+/-1.3%) and 2-methoxyphenol (62+/-4.2%). Up to 12 different phenols could be identified in leachates from three Danish landfills, ranging in concentration from 0.01 to 29 microg/L, which is at the lower end of the concentration range usually found for phenols in landfill leachates (sub-microg/L to mg/L).