3
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Nilles EJ, Paulino CT, de St Aubin M, Restrepo AC, Mayfield H, Dumas D, Finch E, Garnier S, Etienne MC, Iselin L, Duke W, Jarolim P, Oasan T, Yu J, Wan H, Peña F, Iihoshi N, Abdalla G, Lopez B, Cruz LDL, Henríquez B, Espinosa-Bode A, Puello YC, Durski K, Baldwin M, Baez AA, Merchant RC, Barouch DH, Skewes-Ramm R, Gutiérrez EZ, Kucharski A, Lau CL. SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence, cumulative infections, and immunity to symptomatic infection - A multistage national household survey and modelling study, Dominican Republic, June-October 2021. Lancet Reg Health Am 2022; 16:100390. [PMID: 36408529 PMCID: PMC9642112 DOI: 10.1016/j.lana.2022.100390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2022] [Revised: 09/26/2022] [Accepted: 10/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Background Population-level SARS-CoV-2 immunological protection is poorly understood but can guide vaccination and non-pharmaceutical intervention priorities. Our objective was to characterise cumulative infections and immunological protection in the Dominican Republic. Methods Household members ≥5 years were enrolled in a three-stage national household cluster serosurvey in the Dominican Republic. We measured pan-immunoglobulin antibodies against the SARS-CoV-2 spike (anti-S) and nucleocapsid glycoproteins, and pseudovirus neutralising activity against the ancestral and B.1.617.2 (Delta) strains. Seroprevalence and cumulative prior infections were weighted and adjusted for assay performance and seroreversion. Binary classification machine learning methods and pseudovirus neutralising correlates of protection were used to estimate 50% and 80% protection against symptomatic infection. Findings Between 30 Jun and 12 Oct 2021 we enrolled 6683 individuals from 3832 households. We estimate that 85.0% (CI 82.1-88.0) of the ≥5 years population had been immunologically exposed and 77.5% (CI 71.3-83) had been previously infected. Protective immunity sufficient to provide at least 50% protection against symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection was estimated in 78.1% (CI 74.3-82) and 66.3% (CI 62.8-70) of the population for the ancestral and Delta strains respectively. Younger (5-14 years, OR 0.47 [CI 0.36-0.61]) and older (≥75-years, 0.40 [CI 0.28-0.56]) age, working outdoors (0.53 [0.39-0.73]), smoking (0.66 [0.52-0.84]), urban setting (1.30 [1.14-1.49]), and three vs no vaccine doses (18.41 [10.69-35.04]) were associated with 50% protection against the ancestral strain. Interpretation Cumulative infections substantially exceeded prior estimates and overall immunological exposure was high. After controlling for confounders, markedly lower immunological protection was observed to the ancestral and Delta strains across certain subgroups, findings that can guide public health interventions and may be generalisable to other settings and viral strains. Funding This study was funded by the US CDC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric J Nilles
- Division of Global Emergency Care and Humanitarian Studies, Brigham and Womens Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,Infectious Diseases and Epidemics Program, Harvard Humanitarian Initiative, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | | | - Michael de St Aubin
- Division of Global Emergency Care and Humanitarian Studies, Brigham and Womens Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Infectious Diseases and Epidemics Program, Harvard Humanitarian Initiative, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | | | - Helen Mayfield
- School of Public Health, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Devan Dumas
- Division of Global Emergency Care and Humanitarian Studies, Brigham and Womens Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Infectious Diseases and Epidemics Program, Harvard Humanitarian Initiative, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Emilie Finch
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Salome Garnier
- Division of Global Emergency Care and Humanitarian Studies, Brigham and Womens Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Infectious Diseases and Epidemics Program, Harvard Humanitarian Initiative, Cambridge, MA, USA.,Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Marie Caroline Etienne
- Division of Global Emergency Care and Humanitarian Studies, Brigham and Womens Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | - William Duke
- Pedro Henríquez Ureña National University, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic
| | - Petr Jarolim
- Division of Global Emergency Care and Humanitarian Studies, Brigham and Womens Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Timothy Oasan
- Division of Global Emergency Care and Humanitarian Studies, Brigham and Womens Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jingyou Yu
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Huahua Wan
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Farah Peña
- Ministry of Health and Social Assistance, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic
| | - Naomi Iihoshi
- Division of Global Emergency Care and Humanitarian Studies, Brigham and Womens Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Gabriela Abdalla
- Division of Global Emergency Care and Humanitarian Studies, Brigham and Womens Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Beatriz Lopez
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Central America Regional Office, Guatemala City, Guatemala
| | - Lucia de la Cruz
- Ministry of Health and Social Assistance, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic
| | - Bernarda Henríquez
- Ministry of Health and Social Assistance, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic
| | - Andres Espinosa-Bode
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Central America Regional Office, Guatemala City, Guatemala
| | | | - Kara Durski
- Division of Global Emergency Care and Humanitarian Studies, Brigham and Womens Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Margaret Baldwin
- Division of Global Emergency Care and Humanitarian Studies, Brigham and Womens Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Infectious Diseases and Epidemics Program, Harvard Humanitarian Initiative, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Amado Alejandro Baez
- Ministry of Health and Social Assistance, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic.,Pedro Henríquez Ureña National University, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic
| | - Roland C Merchant
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Dan H Barouch
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Ronald Skewes-Ramm
- Ministry of Health and Social Assistance, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic
| | - Emily Zielinski Gutiérrez
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Central America Regional Office, Guatemala City, Guatemala
| | - Adam Kucharski
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Colleen L Lau
- School of Public Health, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
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4
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Lee JY, Wing PAC, Gala DS, Noerenberg M, Järvelin AI, Titlow J, Zhuang X, Palmalux N, Iselin L, Thompson MK, Parton RM, Prange-Barczynska M, Wainman A, Salguero FJ, Bishop T, Agranoff D, James W, Castello A, McKeating JA, Davis I. Absolute quantitation of individual SARS-CoV-2 RNA molecules provides a new paradigm for infection dynamics and variant differences. eLife 2022; 11:74153. [PMID: 35049501 PMCID: PMC8776252 DOI: 10.7554/elife.74153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2021] [Accepted: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite an unprecedented global research effort on SARS-CoV-2, early replication events remain poorly understood. Given the clinical importance of emergent viral variants with increased transmission, there is an urgent need to understand the early stages of viral replication and transcription. We used single-molecule fluorescence in situ hybridisation (smFISH) to quantify positive sense RNA genomes with 95% detection efficiency, while simultaneously visualising negative sense genomes, subgenomic RNAs, and viral proteins. Our absolute quantification of viral RNAs and replication factories revealed that SARS-CoV-2 genomic RNA is long-lived after entry, suggesting that it avoids degradation by cellular nucleases. Moreover, we observed that SARS-CoV-2 replication is highly variable between cells, with only a small cell population displaying high burden of viral RNA. Unexpectedly, the B.1.1.7 variant, first identified in the UK, exhibits significantly slower replication kinetics than the Victoria strain, suggesting a novel mechanism contributing to its higher transmissibility with important clinical implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey Y Lee
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of OxfordOxfordUnited Kingdom
| | - Peter AC Wing
- Nuffield Department of Medicine, The University of OxfordOxfordUnited Kingdom,Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences (CAMS) Oxford Institute (COI), The University of OxfordOxfordUnited Kingdom
| | - Dalia S Gala
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of OxfordOxfordUnited Kingdom
| | - Marko Noerenberg
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of OxfordOxfordUnited Kingdom,MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, The University of GlasgowGlasgowUnited Kingdom
| | - Aino I Järvelin
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of OxfordOxfordUnited Kingdom
| | - Joshua Titlow
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of OxfordOxfordUnited Kingdom
| | - Xiaodong Zhuang
- Nuffield Department of Medicine, The University of OxfordOxfordUnited Kingdom
| | - Natasha Palmalux
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, The University of GlasgowGlasgowUnited Kingdom
| | - Louisa Iselin
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of OxfordOxfordUnited Kingdom
| | - Mary Kay Thompson
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of OxfordOxfordUnited Kingdom
| | - Richard M Parton
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of OxfordOxfordUnited Kingdom
| | - Maria Prange-Barczynska
- Nuffield Department of Medicine, The University of OxfordOxfordUnited Kingdom,Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, The University of OxfordOxfordUnited Kingdom
| | - Alan Wainman
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, The University of OxfordOxfordUnited Kingdom
| | | | - Tammie Bishop
- Nuffield Department of Medicine, The University of OxfordOxfordUnited Kingdom,Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, The University of OxfordOxfordUnited Kingdom
| | - Daniel Agranoff
- Department of Infectious Diseases, University Hospitals Sussex NHS Foundation TrustBrightonUnited Kingdom
| | - William James
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, The University of OxfordOxfordUnited Kingdom,James & Lillian Martin Centre, Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, The University of OxfordOxfordUnited Kingdom
| | - Alfredo Castello
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of OxfordOxfordUnited Kingdom,MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, The University of GlasgowGlasgowUnited Kingdom
| | - Jane A McKeating
- Nuffield Department of Medicine, The University of OxfordOxfordUnited Kingdom,Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences (CAMS) Oxford Institute (COI), The University of OxfordOxfordUnited Kingdom
| | - Ilan Davis
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of OxfordOxfordUnited Kingdom
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5
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Iselin L, Palmalux N, Kamel W, Simmonds P, Mohammed S, Castello A. Uncovering viral RNA-host cell interactions on a proteome-wide scale. Trends Biochem Sci 2022; 47:23-38. [PMID: 34509361 PMCID: PMC9187521 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibs.2021.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Revised: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 08/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
RNA viruses interact with a wide range of cellular RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) during their life cycle. The prevalence of these host-virus interactions has been highlighted by new methods that elucidate the composition of viral ribonucleoproteins (vRNPs). Applied to 11 viruses so far, these approaches have revealed hundreds of cellular RBPs that interact with viral (v)RNA in infected cells. However, consistency across methods is limited, raising questions about methodological considerations when designing and interpreting these studies. Here, we discuss these caveats and, through comparing available vRNA interactomes, describe RBPs that are consistently identified as vRNP components and outline their potential roles in infection. In summary, these novel approaches have uncovered a new universe of host-virus interactions holding great therapeutic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louisa Iselin
- Nuffield Department of Medicine, Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3SY, UK,Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, OX1 3QU, Oxford, UK
| | - Natasha Palmalux
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, 464 Bearsden Road, Glasgow G61 1QH, Scotland, (UK)
| | - Wael Kamel
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, OX1 3QU, Oxford, UK,MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, 464 Bearsden Road, Glasgow G61 1QH, Scotland, (UK)
| | - Peter Simmonds
- Nuffield Department of Medicine, Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3SY, UK
| | - Shabaz Mohammed
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, OX1 3QU, Oxford, UK,Chemistry Research Laboratory, University of Oxford, Mansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3TA, UK,The Rosalind Franklin Institute, Oxfordshire, OX11 0FA, UK
| | - Alfredo Castello
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, OX1 3QU, Oxford, UK,MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, 464 Bearsden Road, Glasgow G61 1QH, Scotland, (UK),Correspondence:
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6
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Wickenhagen A, Sugrue E, Lytras S, Kuchi S, Noerenberg M, Turnbull ML, Loney C, Herder V, Allan J, Jarmson I, Cameron-Ruiz N, Varjak M, Pinto RM, Lee JY, Iselin L, Palmalux N, Stewart DG, Swingler S, Greenwood EJD, Crozier TWM, Gu Q, Davies EL, Clohisey S, Wang B, Trindade Maranhão Costa F, Freire Santana M, de Lima Ferreira LC, Murphy L, Fawkes A, Meynert A, Grimes G, Da Silva Filho JL, Marti M, Hughes J, Stanton RJ, Wang ECY, Ho A, Davis I, Jarrett RF, Castello A, Robertson DL, Semple MG, Openshaw PJM, Palmarini M, Lehner PJ, Baillie JK, Rihn SJ, Wilson SJ. A prenylated dsRNA sensor protects against severe COVID-19. Science 2021; 374:eabj3624. [PMID: 34581622 PMCID: PMC7612834 DOI: 10.1126/science.abj3624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2021] [Accepted: 09/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Inherited genetic factors can influence the severity of COVID-19, but the molecular explanation underpinning a genetic association is often unclear. Intracellular antiviral defenses can inhibit the replication of viruses and reduce disease severity. To better understand the antiviral defenses relevant to COVID-19, we used interferon-stimulated gene (ISG) expression screening to reveal that 2′-5′-oligoadenylate synthetase 1 (OAS1), through ribonuclease L, potently inhibits severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). We show that a common splice-acceptor single-nucleotide polymorphism (Rs10774671) governs whether patients express prenylated OAS1 isoforms that are membrane-associated and sense-specific regions of SARS-CoV-2 RNAs or if they only express cytosolic, nonprenylated OAS1 that does not efficiently detect SARS-CoV-2. In hospitalized patients, expression of prenylated OAS1 was associated with protection from severe COVID-19, suggesting that this antiviral defense is a major component of a protective antiviral response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arthur Wickenhagen
- Medical Research Council–University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research (CVR), Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Elena Sugrue
- Medical Research Council–University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research (CVR), Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Spyros Lytras
- Medical Research Council–University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research (CVR), Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Srikeerthana Kuchi
- Medical Research Council–University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research (CVR), Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Marko Noerenberg
- Medical Research Council–University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research (CVR), Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Matthew L. Turnbull
- Medical Research Council–University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research (CVR), Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Colin Loney
- Medical Research Council–University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research (CVR), Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Vanessa Herder
- Medical Research Council–University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research (CVR), Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Jay Allan
- Medical Research Council–University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research (CVR), Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Innes Jarmson
- Medical Research Council–University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research (CVR), Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Natalia Cameron-Ruiz
- Medical Research Council–University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research (CVR), Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Margus Varjak
- Medical Research Council–University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research (CVR), Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Rute M. Pinto
- Medical Research Council–University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research (CVR), Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Jeffrey Y. Lee
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Louisa Iselin
- Medical Research Council–University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research (CVR), Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Natasha Palmalux
- Medical Research Council–University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research (CVR), Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Douglas G. Stewart
- Medical Research Council–University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research (CVR), Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Simon Swingler
- Medical Research Council–University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research (CVR), Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Edward J. D. Greenwood
- Cambridge Institute of Therapeutic Immunology and Infectious Disease, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Thomas W. M. Crozier
- Cambridge Institute of Therapeutic Immunology and Infectious Disease, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Quan Gu
- Medical Research Council–University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research (CVR), Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Emma L. Davies
- Medical Research Council–University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research (CVR), Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Sara Clohisey
- Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Bo Wang
- Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Fabio Trindade Maranhão Costa
- Laboratory of Tropical Diseases, Department of Genetics, Evolution, Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Biology, University of Campinas, Campinas, Sao Paolo, Brazil
| | - Monique Freire Santana
- Department of Education and Research, Oncology Control Centre of Amazonas State (FCECON), Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil
| | - Luiz Carlos de Lima Ferreira
- Postgraduate Program in Tropical Medicine, Tropical Medicine Foundation Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil
| | - Lee Murphy
- Edinburgh Clinical Research Facility, University of Edinburgh, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Angie Fawkes
- Edinburgh Clinical Research Facility, University of Edinburgh, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Alison Meynert
- Medical Research Council Human Genetics Unit, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Graeme Grimes
- Medical Research Council Human Genetics Unit, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, UK
| | - ISARIC4C Investigators
- Medical Research Council–University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research (CVR), Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Cambridge Institute of Therapeutic Immunology and Infectious Disease, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
- Laboratory of Tropical Diseases, Department of Genetics, Evolution, Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Biology, University of Campinas, Campinas, Sao Paolo, Brazil
- Department of Education and Research, Oncology Control Centre of Amazonas State (FCECON), Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil
- Postgraduate Program in Tropical Medicine, Tropical Medicine Foundation Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil
- Edinburgh Clinical Research Facility, University of Edinburgh, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, UK
- Medical Research Council Human Genetics Unit, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, UK
- Wellcome Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
- Division of Infection & Immunity, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
- NIHR Health Protection Research Unit for Emerging and Zoonotic Infections, Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
- Respiratory Medicine, Alder Hey Children’s Hospital, Liverpool, UK
- National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, UK
- Imperial College Healthcare, National Health Service Trust London, London, UK
- Intensive Care Unit, Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Joao Luiz Da Silva Filho
- Wellcome Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Matthias Marti
- Wellcome Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Joseph Hughes
- Medical Research Council–University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research (CVR), Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | | | - Eddie C. Y. Wang
- Division of Infection & Immunity, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Antonia Ho
- Medical Research Council–University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research (CVR), Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Ilan Davis
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Ruth F. Jarrett
- Medical Research Council–University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research (CVR), Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Alfredo Castello
- Medical Research Council–University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research (CVR), Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - David L. Robertson
- Medical Research Council–University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research (CVR), Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Malcolm G. Semple
- NIHR Health Protection Research Unit for Emerging and Zoonotic Infections, Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
- Respiratory Medicine, Alder Hey Children’s Hospital, Liverpool, UK
| | - Peter J. M. Openshaw
- National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, UK
- Imperial College Healthcare, National Health Service Trust London, London, UK
| | - Massimo Palmarini
- Medical Research Council–University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research (CVR), Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Paul J. Lehner
- Cambridge Institute of Therapeutic Immunology and Infectious Disease, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - J. Kenneth Baillie
- Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
- Medical Research Council Human Genetics Unit, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, UK
- Intensive Care Unit, Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Suzannah J. Rihn
- Medical Research Council–University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research (CVR), Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Sam J. Wilson
- Medical Research Council–University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research (CVR), Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
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