The database of the PREDICTS (Projecting Responses of Ecological Diversity In Changing Terrestrial Systems) project

The PREDICTS project-Projecting Responses of Ecological Diversity In Changing Terrestrial Systems (www.predicts.org.uk)-has collated from published studies a large, reasonably representative database of comparable samples of biodiversity from multiple sites that differ in the nature or intensity of human impacts relating to land use. We have used this evidence base to develop global and regional statistical models of how local biodiversity responds to these measures. We describe and make freely available this 2016 release of the database, containing more than 3.2 million records sampled at over 26,000 locations and representing over 47,000 species. We outline how the database can help in answering a range of questions in ecology and conservation biology. To our knowledge, this is the largest and most geographically and taxonomically representative database of spatial comparisons of biodiversity that has been collated to date; it will be useful to researchers and international efforts wishing to model and understand the global status of biodiversity.

Predicting bee community responses to land-use changes: Effects of geographic and taxonomic biases

Land-use change and intensification threaten bee populations worldwide, imperilling pollination services. Global models are needed to better characterise, project, and mitigate bees' responses to these human impacts. The available data are, however, geographically and taxonomically unrepresentative; most data are from North America and Western Europe, overrepresenting bumblebees and raising concerns that model results may not be generalizable to other regions and taxa. To assess whether the geographic and taxonomic biases of data could undermine effectiveness of models for conservation policy, we have collated from the published literature a global dataset of bee diversity at sites facing land-use change and intensification, and assess whether bee responses to these pressures vary across 11 regions (Western, Northern, Eastern and Southern Europe; North, Central and South America; Australia and New Zealand; South East Asia; Middle and Southern Africa) and between bumblebees and other bees. Our analyses highlight strong regionally-based responses of total abundance, species richness and Simpson's diversity to land use, caused by variation in the sensitivity of species and potentially in the nature of threats. These results suggest that global extrapolation of models based on geographically and taxonomically restricted data may underestimate the true uncertainty, increasing the risk of ecological surprises.

Responses of 9 lepidopteran species to Bacillus thuringiensis: How useful is phylogenetic relatedness for selecting surrogate species for nontarget arthropod risk assessment?

To evaluate phylogenetic relatedness as a proxy for susceptibility to Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) when selecting species to act as surrogates for others in prerelease testing, we examined the responses of 11 laboratory-reared lepidopteran colonies, comprising members of 2 families, 5 genera, and 9 species, to a commercial Bt preparation. Survival, pupal mass, and timing of pupation and adult emergence of 2 noctuids (Spodoptera litura and Helicoverpa armigera) and 7 tortricids (Cnephasia jactatana, Ctenopseustis obliquana, Ctenopseustis herana,Planotortrix octo, Planotortrix notophaea,Planotortrix excessana [2 different laboratory colonies], and Epiphyas postvittana [2 colonies]) were examined after feeding first instar larvae with artificial diet containing 5 μL/100 mL Dipel ES (Bt subsp. kurstaki). Bt caused significant larval mortality in all species except S. litura, in which only pupation was delayed compared with untreated controls. Neither of the noctuid species tested would act as a suitable surrogate for the other in tests of Bt impacts on survival. With the exception of the 2 colonies of E. postvittana, which differed from each other not only in their responses to Bt but also in their development times when not treated with Bt, species within each tortricid genus had similar responses to Bt and thus could act as surrogates for each other. Members of different genera within this family could represent each other only if relatively coarse measurement endpoints (e.g., toxic or not) were considered adequate for assessing risks to nontarget species in the field.

Potential use of an arthropod database to support the non-target risk assessment and monitoring of transgenic plants

Worldwide, plants obtained through genetic modification are subject to a risk analysis and regulatory approval before they can enter the market. An area of concern addressed in environmental risk assessments is the potential of genetically modified (GM) plants to adversely affect non-target arthropods and the valued ecosystem services they provide. Environmental risk assessments are conducted case-by-case for each GM plant taking into account the plant species, its trait(s), the receiving environments into which the GM plant is to be released and its intended uses, and the combination of these characteristics. To facilitate the non-target risk assessment of GM plants, information on arthropods found in relevant agro-ecosystems in Europe has been compiled in a publicly available database of bio-ecological information during a project commissioned by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). Using different hypothetical GM maize case studies, we demonstrate how the information contained in the database can assist in identifying valued species that may be at risk and in selecting suitable species for laboratory testing, higher-tier studies, as well as post-market environmental monitoring.

Biosafety testing of genetically modified ryegrass (Lolium perenne) using a model for the optimum selection of test invertebrates

Selection of test species for use in biosafety evaluation of genetically modified plants is challenging but important, as regulators in many jurisdictions require tests to determine the potential for adverse environmental impacts before the release of plants into the environment. This contribution provides an example of an evidence-based process whereby species from the receiving environment can be ranked in order of susceptibility to potential impact, and guide test species selection. The case study used for this example was ryegrass, a forage plant, which had been modified to produce elevated levels of the lipid triacylglyceride. The previously described priority ranking of nontarget invertebrates model (PRONTI), designed to rank invertebrates for biosafety testing, has been adapted for use with these plants, which could, potentially, be beneficial to invertebrate populations, and applied to data on 246 known pasture invertebrate species. The output from the model for the top 20 ranked pasture invertebrate species is discussed, the attributes of these are considered along with the level of uncertainty in the information used. Consideration is given to how the model output can be interpreted and used in a biosafety risk assessment. While some subjectivity is involved in establishing the scores, all invertebrate species are subjected to the same analysis, and treated equally. In this way, regulators have a method of a risk assessment that is evidence-based, and transparent in its assumptions thereby avoiding potential for bias.

No impact of transgenic nptII-leafy Pinus radiata (Pinales: Pinaceae) on Pseudocoremia suavis (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) or its endoparasitoid Meteorus pulchricornis (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)

To investigate the biosafety to insects of transgenic Pinus radiata D. Don containing the antibiotic resistance marker gene nptII and the reproductive control gene leafy, bioassays were conducted with an endemic lepidopteran pest of New Zealand plantation pine forests and a hymenopteran endoparasitoid. Larvae of the common forest looper, Pseudocoremia suavis (Butler), were fed from hatching on P. radiata needles from either one of two nptII-leafy transgenic clones, or an isogenic unmodified control line. For both unparasitized P. suavis and those parasitized by Meteorus pulchricornis (Wesmael), consuming transgenic versus control pine had no impact on larval growth rate or mass at any age, larval duration, survival, pupation or successful emergence as an adult. Total larval duration was 1 d (3%) longer in larvae fed nptII-2 than nptII-1, but this difference was considered trivial and neither differed from the control. In unparasitized P. suavis larvae, pine type consumed did not affect rate of pupation or adult emergence, pupal mass, or pupal duration. Pine type had no effect on the duration or survival of M. pulchricornis larval or pupal stages, mass of cocoons, stage at which they died, adult emergence, or fecundity. Parasitism by M. pulchricornis reduced P. suavis larval growth rate, increased the duration of the third larval stadium, and resulted in the death of all host larvae before pupation. The lack of impact of an exclusive diet of nptII-leafy transgenic pines on the life history of P. suavis and M. pulchricornis suggests that transgenic plantation pines expressing nptII are unlikely to affect insect populations in the field.

Developing biosafety risk hypotheses for invertebrates exposed to GM plants using conceptual food webs: a case study with elevated triacylglyceride levels in ryegrass

Regulators are acutely aware of the need for meaningful risk assessments to support decisions on the safety of GM crops to non-target invertebrates in determining their suitability for field release. We describe a process for developing appropriate, testable risk hypotheses for invertebrates in agroecosystems that might be exposed to plants developed by GM and future novel technologies. An existing model (PRONTI) generates a ranked list of invertebrate species for biosafety testing by accessing a database of biological, ecological and food web information about species which occur in cropping environments and their potential interactions with a particular stressor (Eco Invertebase). Our objective in this contribution is to explore and further utilise these resources to assist in the process of problem formulation by identifying potentially significant effects of the stressor on the invertebrate community and the ecosystem services they provide. We propose that for high ranking species, a conceptual food web using information in Eco Invertebase is constructed, and using an accepted regulatory risk analysis framework, the likelihood of risk, and magnitude of impact for each link in the food web is evaluated. Using as filters only those risks evaluated as likely to extremely likely, and the magnitude of an effect being considered as moderate to massive, the most significant potential effects can be identified. A stepwise approach is suggested to develop a sequence of appropriate tests. The GM ryegrass plant used as the "stressor" in this study has been modified to increase triacylglyceride levels in foliage by 100% to increase the metabolisable energy content of forage for grazing animals. The high-ranking "test" species chosen to illustrate the concept are New Zealand native species Wiseana cervinata (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Hepialidae), Persectania aversa (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), and the self-introduced grey field slug, Deroceras reticulatum (Müller).

Developing risk hypotheses and selecting species for assessing non-target impacts of GM trees with novel traits: the case of altered-lignin pine trees

A procedure is presented for developing environmental risk hypotheses associated with the deployment of forest trees genetically modified to have altered wood properties and for selecting non-target species to test these hypotheses. Altered-lignin Pinus radiata trees intended for use in New Zealand are used as a hypothetical case study to illustrate our approach. Firstly, environmental management goals (such as wood production, flood control or preservation of biodiversity) were identified and linked to the forest attributes they require. Necessary conditions for each attribute were listed and appropriate assessment endpoints for them developed. For example, biological control of pests may be one condition necessary for a forest to have healthy trees, and the diversity and abundance of natural enemy species in the forest could be an appropriate assessment endpoint for measuring this condition. A conceptual model describing the relationships between an altered-lignin GM pine tree and potentially affected invertebrates and micro-organisms in a plantation forest was used to develop a set of risk hypotheses describing how the GM trees might affect each assessment endpoint. Because purified lignin does not represent the properties it imparts to wood, maximum hazard dose tests with non-target organisms, as are used to inform toxin risk assessment, cannot be conducted. Alternative experiments, based on current knowledge of the responses of organisms to lignin, must be designed. A screening method was adapted and applied to a database of invertebrate species known to inhabit New Zealand pine forests to identify and prioritize non-target invertebrate species that could be used as experimental subjects for examining these hypotheses. The screening model and its application are presented, along with a set of recommendations for pre-release tests with GM pines and potentially affected invertebrates and micro-organisms.

No unintended impacts of transgenic pine (Pinus radiata) trees on above ground invertebrate communities

As part of an investigation into the potential unintended ecological impacts of transgenic trees, invertebrates were sampled from a field trial of transgenic Pinus radiata D. Don carrying the expressed antibiotic resistance marker gene neomycin phosphotransferase II (nptII) along with other genes known to affect reproductive development in plants and from nontransformed control trees. Invertebrate species abundance, richness, diversity, and composition were measured and compared among trees of five different transclones and nontransformed isogenic control trees. Invertebrates were sampled at six-monthly intervals over a period of 2 yr. In total, 19,162 individuals were collected comprising 279 invertebrate recognizable taxonomic units. Total invertebrate populations as well as populations of herbivorous lepidopteran larvae and Hemiptera were compared among transgenic and control trees. The results show that the transclones had no significant unintended influence on species abundance, richness, diversity, or composition for all populations investigated.

The use of biotin-binding proteins for insect control

Biotin-binding proteins (BBPs), expressed in transgenic plants, are insecticidal to a very wide range of insects. The expression levels required are generally low (approximately 100 ppm), and although higher than required for Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) delta-endotoxins, BBPs are effective across a broader range of insect orders and other invertebrates than the Bt Cry proteins. Avidin and streptavidin, in particular, have been reported as causing death or severe growth reduction in at least 40 species of insects across five insect orders (Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Orthoptera, Diptera, and leaf-eating Hymenoptera) and mites. In addition, due largely to its rapid dilution in ecosystems, no adverse impacts on nontarget microorganisms or invertebrates have been recorded. Because the target, biotin, cannot itself be modified to prevent it binding to BBPs and remain effective as a vitamin, the major avenue open to insects to develop resistance is unavailable. Two properties of the biotin-avidin complex make it highly suitable for use in transgenic plant crop protection strategies against a large range of insects; its extreme stability and its resistance to proteolysis. However, because the nutritional value of the plant could potentially be compromised in the absence of biotin supplementation, its use in nonfood crops such as fiber, forestry, and biofuel crops is seen as the most suitable initial focus for this technology.

Distribution and residual activity of two insecticidal proteins, avidin and aprotinin, expressed in transgenic tobacco plants, in the bodies and frass of Spodoptera litura larvae following feeding

To understand how a major cosmopolitan pest responds to two very different insecticidal proteins and to determine whether herbivorous insects and their frass could be environmental sources of recombinant proteins from transgenic plants, Spodoptera litura (Fab.) (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) larvae were fed on tobacco leaves expressing either the biotin-binding protein, avidin, or the protease inhibitor, aprotinin. Control larvae received non-transgenic tobacco. Samples of larvae were taken after 5, 6 or 7 days' feeding and frass was collected after two 24-h periods at 6 and 7 days. Insects in all treatments grew significantly during the experiment, but the avidin-fed larvae were significantly smaller than the others on Day 7. Avidin was found in all samples of avidin-fed larvae (7.0+/-0.86 ng mg(-1), n=45), at a lower level than in their frass (31.9+/-5.08 ng mg(-1), n=30), and these frass levels were lower than those of the the leaves fed to the larvae (69.0+/-6.71 ng mg(-1), n=45). All of the avidin detected in these samples was capable of binding biotin. On average, between 10 and 28% of avidin was recovered with the methods used, whereas almost full recovery of aprotinin was effected. Aprotinin levels in larvae (8.2+/-0.53 ng mg(-1), n=45) were also lower than aprotinin levels in frass (77.4+/-6.9 ng mg(-1), n=30), which were somewhat lower than those in the leaves fed to the larvae (88.6+/-2.51 ng mg(-1), n=45). Approximately half the trypsin-binding ability of aprotinin was lost in larvae, and in frass, aprotinin had lost about 90% of its ability to bind trypsin.

Effects of plants genetically modified for insect resistance on nontarget organisms

Insect resistance, based on Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) endotoxins, is the second most widely used trait (after herbicide resistance) in commercial genetically modified (GM) crops. Other modifications for insect resistance, such as proteinase inhibitors and lectins, are also being used in many experimental crops. The extensive testing on nontarget plant-feeding insects and beneficial species that has accompanied the long-term and wide-scale use of Bt plants has not detected significant adverse effects. GM plants expressing other insect-resistant proteins that have a broader spectrum of activity have been tested on only a limited number of nontarget species. Little is known about the persistence of transgene-derived proteins in soil, with the exception of Bt endotoxins, which can persist in soil for several months. Bt plants appear to have little impact on soil biota such as earthworms, collembolans, and general soil microflora. Further research is required on the effects of GM plants on soil processes such as decomposition. Assessment of nontarget impacts is an essential part of the risk assessment process for insect-resistant GM plants.

Avidin expressed in transgenic tobacco leaves confers resistance to two noctuid pests, Helicoverpa armigera and Spodoptera litura

Fertile transgenic tobacco plants with leaves expressing avidin in the vacuole have been produced and shown to halt growth and cause mortality in larvae of two noctuid lepidopterans, Helicoverpa armigera and Spodoptera litura. Late first instar H. armigera larvae and neonate (< 12-h-old) S. litura larvae placed on leaves excised from T0 tobacco expressing avidin at 3.1-4.6 microM (micromoles/kg of fresh leaf tissue) had very poor growth over their first 8 days on the leaves, significant numbers had died by days 11 or 12 and all were dead by day 22 (H. armigera) or day 25 (S. litura). Similar results were obtained when late first instar H. armigera larvae were placed on leaves from T1 plants expressing avidin at six different average concentrations, ranging from 3.7 to 17.3 microM. Two larvae on the lowest expressing leaves survived to pupation, but there was total mortality among the other groups and no relationship between avidin concentration and the effects on the larvae. Synergistic effects between avidin-expressing tobacco plants and a purified Bt toxin, Cry1Ba, were demonstrated. Late instar H. armigera larvae fed with leaves from T2 plants expressing avidin at average concentrations of either <5.3 or > 12.9 microM, and painted with Cry1Ba protein at a rate equivalent to an expression level of 0.5% of total leaf protein, died significantly faster than larvae given either of the two treatments alone. Larvae fed with avidin-expressing leaves painted with the protease inhibitor, aprotinin, at a rate equivalent to 1% of total leaf protein had mortality similar to those given avidin-leaves alone. There was no evidence of antagonism between these two proteins.

The expression of a mammalian proteinase inhibitor, bovine spleen trypsin inhibitor in tobacco and its effects on Helicoverpa armigera larvae

The cDNA for bovine spleen trypsin inhibitor (SI), a homologue of bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor (BPTI), including the natural mammalian presequence was expressed in tobacco using Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation. Stable expression required the N-terminal targeting signal presequence although subcellular localization was not proven. SI was found to exist as two forms, one coinciding with authentic BPTI on western blots and the second marginally larger due to retention of the C-terminal peptide. Both were retained on a trypsin-agarose affinity gel and had inhibitory activity. Newly emergent leaves contained predominantly the large form whereas senescent leaves had little except the fully processed form present. Intermediate-aged leaves showed a gradual change indicating that a slow processing of the inhibitor peptide was occurring. The stability of SI was shown by the presence of protein at high levels in completely senescent leaves. Modifications to the cDNA (3' and 5' changes and minor codon changes) resulted in a 20-fold variation in expression. Expression of modified SI in transgenic tobacco leaves at 0.5% total soluble protein reduced both survival and growth of Helicoverpa armigera larvae feeding on leaves from the late first instar. In larvae surviving for 8 days, midgut trypsin activity was reduced in SI-tobacco fed larvae, while chymotrypsin activity was increased. Activities of leucine aminopeptidase and elastase-like chymotrypsin remained unaltered. The use of SI as an insect resistance factor is discussed.

Effects of visual impairment on stroke parameters in Paralympic swimmers

PURPOSE

To examine the relationship between degree of vision and stroking parameters in male and female Paralympic swimmers with visual impairment during the 50- and 100-m freestyle events.

METHODS

A video analysis was conducted at the 1996 Paralympic Games in which swimmers competed in three groups based on degree of impairment (S11, S12, and S13; S11 least amount of vision). A video camera placed 25 m from the start, perpendicular to the swimming direction, recorded the performance of each swimmer during the clean swim phase. Variables measured included total race time, clean swimming speed (CSS), stroke rate (SR), stroke length (SL), and stroke index (SI = CSS x SL). Comparisons of performance were made between the classes and between men and women.

RESULTS

The men showed no significant differences between S12 and S13 on any of the variables or between all three classes on SL and SI. The S11 swimmers demonstrated a significantly slower total race time and CSS in both events. In the women, an increase in class was associated with a decrease in total race time, faster CSS, and increase in SI. In comparing men and women, men demonstrated a significantly faster CSS and total race time during both events, whereas no differences were observed in SR.

CONCLUSION

Stroke parameters during the clean swim phase were affected by visual impairment in both men and women. The male classes, however, were not clearly distinct from each other based on the swimming variables measured, as no significant differences were found between S12 and S13 in either event. With the exception of stroke rate and length, performance of the women tended to increase with an increase in class.

Effects of time, temperature, and honey on Nosema apis (Microsporidia: Nosematidae), a parasite of the honeybee, Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera: Apidae)

Newly emerged adult bees were fed with Nosema apis spores subjected to various treatments, and their longevity, proportions of bees infected, and spores per bee recorded. Spores lost viability after 1, 3, or 6 months in active manuka or multifloral honey, after 3 days in multifloral honey, and after 21 days in water or sugar syrup at 33 degrees C. Air-dried spores lost viability after 3 or 5 days at 40 degrees, 45 degrees, or 49 degrees C. Increasing numbers of bees became infected with increasing doses of spores, regardless of their subsequent food (active manuka honey, thyme honey, or sugar syrup). Final spore loads were similar among bees receiving the same food, regardless of dose. Bees fed with either honey had lighter infections than those fed with syrup, but this may have been due to reductions in their longevity. Bees fed with manuka honey were significantly shorter lived, whether infected or not.

The ribosomal RNA gene region of Nosema apis (Microspora): DNA sequence for small and large subunit rRNA genes and evidence of a large tandem repeat unit size

The ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene region of the microsporidium, Nosema apis, has been examined. A new method for extracting microsporidian genomic DNA from infected host tissue is described. Complete DNA sequence data are presented for the small subunit gene (1242 bp), the internal transcribed space (33 bp), and the large subunit gene (2481 bp to a putative termination point). This is the first time that the complete large subunit rRNA gene has been published for any microsporidian species. DNA sequence is also presented for the regions flanking the 5' end of the small subunit gene and the 3' end of the large subunit gene. The intergenic spacer is shown to be heterogeneous, showing variation in sequence and restriction sites rather than length and containing sequence repeats, which are a characteristic feature of intergenic spacers. The rRNA gene region of N. apis is shown to occur in a head-to-tail, tandemly repeated manner, as in other eukaryotes. This repeat unit is shown to be approximately 18 kb in length. The nucleotide sequence presented has been submitted to the Genbank database under the accession number U97150.

The effects of surface anaesthesia on the autonomic dysreflexia response during functional electrical stimulation

Recently, increases in blood pressure (BP) and concomitant bradycardia, suggestive of autonomic dysreflexia (AD), have been documented during functional electrical stimulation (FES) in individuals with a high spinal cord injury (SCI). If uncontrolled, this response could preclude the safe use of FES among such individuals. FES induced pain is partly related to stimulation of skin nociceptors. Therefore, measures to reduce skin sensitivity may reduce the risk of AD during FES. The purpose of this study was to determine if topical anaesthetic applied over the site of electrical stimulation could minimize the AD cardiovascular and hormonal responses to FES in individuals with SCI above the T6 level. Seven subjects with a SCI above T6 received FES to the quadriceps muscle of each leg under two conditions on two different testing days. The two treatment conditions, topical anaesthetic and placebo creams, were double blinded and randomized. The cream was administered to an area the size of the electrode (10 x 10 cm) 1 h prior to stimulation. Stimulation began at 0 mAmps and increased by 16 mAmps every 2 min until an intensity of 160 mAmps was achieved. HR and BP were measured at each stimulation intensity level. Catecholamines were analyzed three times during the stimulation protocol (pre, mid and post stimulation intensities). At the end of the stimulation protocol, FES induced isometric quadriceps contraction force at 160 mAmps intensity was measured using a hand held dynamometer. As FES stimulation intensity increased, significant rises in systolic and diastolic BP were seen, with a concomitant progressive drop in HR. The AD response to stimulation was not significantly different between the topical anaesthetic and placebo conditions. Serum catecholamine (epinephrine and norepinephrine) levels tended to rise with increasing FES intensity levels but did not reach statistical significance. The two treatment conditions did not significantly affect serum catecholamine levels or FES-induced quadriceps contraction force. In summary, FES application to the quadriceps muscle in high level SCI subjects resulted in significant increases in BP, decreases in HR (AD-like response), a trend towards elevations in catecholamine levels, and no difference in quadriceps muscular strength. However, these responses were unaffected by the use of topical anaesthetic cream on the skin at the stimulation site. This suggests that other mechanisms than skin nociception are operative in FES-induced AD.

Use of nucleotide sequence data to identify a microsporidian pathogen of Pieris rapae (Lepidoptera, Pieridae)

Nucleotide sequence was determined for a portion of genomic DNA which spans the V4 variable region of the small subunit ribosomal RNA gene of an unidentified microsporidium from the cabbage white butterfly, Pieris rapae (174 base pairs). Comparison with equivalent sequence data obtained here for two other microsporidian species, Nosema bombycis (240 base pairs) and Nosema bombi (200 base pairs), and from the GenBank database for 11 other microsporidian species suggests that the unidentified species from P. rapae is most closely related to some Vairimorpha species. Light and electron microscopic observations of the developmental stages of this parasite were in accord with this. Infection experiments conducted at 20 and 26 degrees C demonstrated temperature-dependent dimorphism, with the production of both binucleate free spores (mean dimensions: 3.8 x 1.8 microns; 10-13 polar filament coils) and membrane-bound uninucleate octospores (mean dimensions: 3.1 x 1.9 microns). Macrospores (mean dimensions 8.0 x 2.1 microns) were also observed. Sites of infection were the gut epithelium, the Malpighian tubules, the salivary glands, and the fat body. Infections were found in all insect life stages, including the egg. This microsporidium was found to be indistinguishable from both Nosema mesnili (Paillot) and Microsporidium (Thelohania) mesnili (Paillot) and we propose that these species be combined and transferred to the genus Vairimorpha Pilley.

DNA probes for two Microsporidia, Nosema bombycis and Nosema costelytrae

Two DNA fragments which hybridize specifically with DNA of Nosema bombycis and Nosema costelytrae, respectively, were obtained from genomic DNA of each microsporidian species and sequenced. Neither fragment hybridized with genomic DNA from four other microsporidian isolates tested: Nosema apis, Vairimorpha sp. from cabbage white butterfly (Pieris rapae), and two isolates of Vavraia oncoperae, one from New Zealand grass grubs, Costelytrae zealandica, and another from porina caterpillars, Wiseana spp. The probe for N. bombycis did not hybridize with genomic DNA from N. costelytrae or with DNA from silkworms (Bombyx mori), the primary insect host of this microsporidium. Likewise, the probe for N. costelytrae did not hybridize with genomic DNA from N. bombycis or with DNA from grass grubs (C. zealandica). Both fragments were AT-rich (59 and 79% of total bases, respectively), had G+C/A+T ratios of 0.70 and 0.25, respectively, and represented repeated sequences dispersed throughout the genome.

Dynamic performance assessment of selected sport shoes on impact forces

Few investigators have evaluated the performance characteristics of non-running sport shoes. The purpose of this study was to assess the dynamic performance characteristics of four different shoe models during landings. Five male subjects performed 25 voluntary hanging drop landings (60 cm) onto a force platform (1000 Hz) for each of four shoe conditions (C1 and C2 = basketball shoe, C3 = running shoe, C4 = volleyball shoe). Ground reaction force data were evaluated for maximum forefoot (F1) and rearfoot (F2) impact forces as well as the respective times of occurrence of these events (T1, T2). Results of the group data analysis indicated a preferential performance rank order of C1, C3, C4, C2 although significant interaction effects were observed, indicating a need for single-subject analyses. Three techniques were incorporated to assess individual subject condition differences, all of which elicited unique rank orders for the shoes although each identified C1 as the "best" shoe condition. The results of the study support the necessity for within-subject analyses conducted with an adequate number of trials when attempting to detect subtle performance differences that may exist between various sport shoes. Whether the observed statistically significant differences are biomechanically meaningful remains an important unanswered question.

Osteoid osteoma: excision with scintimetric guidance

The definite diagnosis of osteoid osteoma relies on the demonstration of the nidus, best shown by CT, which also provides precise preoperative localization of the nidus. While bone-block excision to remove the nidus is feasible in the long bones, there may be unacceptable sequelae in the vertebral column and small bones of the hands. By precisely localizing the nidus, radionuclide scintimetry permits excellent therapeutic results, with minimal morbidity.

Kinetics of technetium 99m labelled macroaggregated albumin in humans

The uptake and elimination of 99Tcm labelled MAA were followed by gamma camera and computer over a period of 36 hours in patients undergoing lung scanning and venography. Lungs, stomach, kidneys, GI tract, bladder and thyroid showed significant concentrations of activity at various times after the injection of radiopharmaceutical, with carefully controlled labelling efficiency. There was no indication of accumulation in the liver or spleen. Activity versus time curves were constructed. The lung curve had approximately bi-exponential form with components of effective half-lives 0.88 and 4.56 h. Areas beneath the curves gave cumulated activities for each organ and, using S values (absorbed dose per unit cumulated activity) from MIRD tables, absorbed doses from self-irradiation were calculated for each organ.