Identification, semi-quantification and risk assessment of contaminants of emerging concern in Flemish indoor dust through high-resolution mass spectrometry

Indoor dust can contribute substantially to human exposure to known and contaminants of emerging concern (CECs). Novel compounds with high structural variability and different homologues are frequently discovered through screening of the indoor environment, implying that constant monitoring is required. The present study aimed at the identification and semi-quantification of CECs in 46 indoor dust samples collected in Belgium by liquid chromatography high-resolution mass spectrometry. Samples were analyzed applying a targeted and suspect screening approach; the latter based on a suspect list containing >4000 CECs. This allowed the detection of a total of 55 CECs, 34 and 21 of which were identified with confidence level (CL) 1/2 or CL 3, respectively. Besides numerous known contaminants such as di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate (DEHA) or tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (TBOEP) which were reported with detection frequencies (DFs) > 90%, several novel CECs were annotated. These included phthalates with differing side chains, such as decyl nonyl and decyl undecyl phthalate detected with DFs >80% and identified through the observation of characteristic neutral losses. Additionally, two novel organophosphate flame retardants not previously described in indoor dust, i.e. didecyl butoxyethoxyethyl phosphate (DDeBEEP) and bis(butoxyethyl) butyl phosphate (BBEBP), were identified. The implementation of a dedicated workflow provided semi-quantitative concentrations for a set of suspects. Such data obtained for novel phthalates were in the same order of magnitude as the concentrations observed for legacy phthalates indicating their high relevance for human exposure. From the semi-quantitative data, estimated daily intakes and resulting hazard quotients (HQs) were calculated to estimate the exposure and potential health effects. Neither of the obtained HQ values exceeded the risk threshold, indicating no expected adverse health effects.

Exposure to organophosphate flame retardants and plasticizers is positively associated with wheeze and FeNO and eosinophil levels among school-aged children: The Hokkaido study

Exposure to organophosphate flame retardants and plasticizers (PFRs) increases the risk of asthma and allergies. However, little is known about its association with type 2 inflammation (T2) biomarkers used in the management of allergies. The study investigated associations among urinary PFR metabolite concentrations, allergic symptoms, and T2 biomarkers. The data and samples were collected between 2017 and 2020, including school children (n = 427) aged 9-12 years living in Sapporo City, Japan, among the participants of "The Hokkaido Study on Environment and Children's Health." Thirteen urinary PFR metabolites were measured by LC-MS/MS. Allergic symptoms were assessed using the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood questionnaire. For T2 biomarkers, the peripheral blood eosinophil counts, fraction of exhaled nitric oxide level (FeNO), and serum total immunoglobulin E level were measured. Multiple logistic regression analysis, quantile-based g-computation (qg-computation), and Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR) were used to examine the associations between the health outcomes of the individual PFRs and the PFR mixtures. The highest concentration of PFR was Σtris(1-chloro-isopropyl) phosphates (ΣTCIPP) (Median:1.20 nmol/L). Tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCIPP) was significantly associated with a high odds ratio (OR, 95%CI:1.36, 1.07-1.72) for wheeze. TDCIPP (OR, 95%CI:1.19, 1.02-1.38), Σtriphenyl phosphate (ΣTPHP) (OR, 95%CI:1.81, 1.40-2.37), and Σtris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (ΣTBOEP) (OR, 95%:1.40, 1.13-1.74) were significantly associated with increased odds of FeNO (≥35 ppb). ΣTPHP (OR, 95%CI:1.44, 1.15-1.83) was significantly associated with high eosinophil counts (≥300/μL). For the PFR mixtures, a one-quartile increase in all PFRs (OR, 95%CI:1.48, 1.18-1.86) was significantly associated with high FeNO (≥35 ppb) in the qg-computation model. The PFR mixture was positively associated with high FeNO (≥35 ppb) and eosinophil counts (≥300/μL) in the BKMR models. These results may suggest that exposure to PFRs increases the probability of asthma, allergies, and T2 inflammation.

Cognitive Performance and Exposure to Organophosphate Flame Retardants in Children: Evidence from a Cross-Sectional Analysis of Two European Mother-Child Cohorts

The knowledge of the effects of organophosphate flame retardants on children's neurodevelopment is limited. The purpose of the present research is to evaluate the association between exposure to organophosphate flame retardants and children's neurodevelopment in two European cohorts involved in the Human Biomonitoring Initiative Aligned Studies. The participants were school-aged children belonging to the Odense Child Cohort (Denmark) and the PCB cohort (Slovakia). In each cohort, the children's neurodevelopment was assessed through the Full-Scale Intelligence Quotient score of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, using two different editions. The children's urine samples, collected at one point in time, were analyzed for several metabolites of organophosphate flame retardants. The association between neurodevelopment and each organophosphate flame retardant metabolite was explored by applying separate multiple linear regressions based on the approach of MM-estimation in each cohort. In the Danish cohort, the mean ± standard deviation for the neurodevelopment score was 98 ± 12; the geometric mean (95% confidence interval (95% CI)) of bis(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (BDCIPP) standardized by creatinine (crt) was 0.52 µg/g crt (95% CI = 0.49; 0.60), while that of diphenyl phosphate (DPHP) standardized by crt was 1.44 µg/g crt (95% CI = 1.31; 1.58). The neurodevelopment score showed a small, negative, statistically imprecise trend with BDCIPP standardized by crt (β = -1.30; 95%CI = -2.72; 0.11; p-value = 0.07) and no clear association with DPHP standardized by crt (β = -0.98; 95%CI = -2.96; 0.99; p-value = 0.33). The neurodevelopment score showed a negative trend with BDCIPP (β = -1.42; 95% CI = -2.70; -0.06; p-value = 0.04) and no clear association with DPHP (β = -1.09; 95% CI = -2.87; 0.68; p-value = 0.23). In the Slovakian cohort, the mean ± standard deviation for the neurodevelopment score was 81 ± 15; the geometric mean of BDCIPP standardized by crt was 0.18 µg/g crt (95% CI = 0.16; 0.20), while that of DPHP standardized by crt was 2.24 µg/g crt (95% CI = 2.00; 3.52). The association of the neurodevelopment score with BDCIPP standardized by crt was -0.49 (95%CI = -1.85; 0.87; p-value = 0.48), and with DPHP standardized by crt it was -0.35 (95%CI = -1.90; 1.20; p-value = 0.66). No clear associations were observed between the neurodevelopment score and BDCIPP/DPHP concentrations that were not standardized by crt. No clear associations were observed with bis(1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate (BCIPP) in either cohort, due to the low detection frequency of this compound. In conclusion, this study provides only limited evidence of an inverse association between neurodevelopment and exposure to BDCIPP and DPHP. The timing of exposure and effect modification of other organophosphate flame retardant metabolites and other substances should be the subject of further investigations that address this scientific hypothesis.

Identification and characterization of quaternary ammonium compounds in Flemish indoor dust by ion-mobility high-resolution mass spectrometry

Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) are a class of surfactants commonly used in disinfecting and cleaning products. Their use has substantially increased during the COVID-19 pandemic leading to increasing human exposure. QACs have been associated with hypersensitivity reactions and an increased risk of asthma. This study introduces the first identification, characterization and semi-quantification of QACs in European indoor dust using ion-mobility high-resolution mass spectrometry (IM-HRMS), including the acquisition of collision cross section values (^DTCCS_N2) for targeted and suspect QACs. A total of 46 indoor dust samples collected in Belgium were analyzed using target and suspect screening. Targeted QACs (n = 21) were detected with detection frequencies ranging between 4.2 and 100 %, while 15 QACs showed detection frequencies > 90 %. Semi-quantified concentrations of individual QACs showed a maximum of 32.23 µg/g with a median ∑QAC concentration of 13.05 µg/g and allowed the calculation of Estimated Daily Intakes for adults and toddlers. Most abundant QACs matched the patterns reported in indoor dust collected in the United States. Suspect screening allowed the identification of 17 additional QACs. A dialkyl dimethyl ammonium compound with mixed chain lengths (C16:C18) was characterized as a major QAC homologue with a maximum semi-quantified concentration of 24.90 µg/g. The high detection frequencies and structural variabilities observed call for more European studies on potential human exposure to these compounds. For all targeted QACs, drift tube IM-HRMS derived collision cross section values (^DTCCS_N2) are reported. Reference ^DTCCS_N2 values allowed the characterization of CCS-m/z trendlines for each of the targeted QAC classes. Experimental CCS-m/z ratios of suspect QACs were compared with the CCS-m/z trendlines. The alignment between the two datasets served as an additional confirmation of the assigned suspect QACs. The use of the 4bit multiplexing acquisition mode with consecutive high-resolution demultiplexing confirmed the presence of isomers for two of the suspect QACs.

Reviewing the variability in urinary concentrations of non-persistent organic chemicals: evaluation across classes, sampling strategies and dilution corrections

Various biomonitoring studies have been carried out to investigate the exposure of populations by measuring non-persistent organic chemicals in urine. To accurately assess the exposure, study designs should be carefully developed to maximise reproducibility and achieve good characterization of the temporal variability. To test these parameters, the intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) are calculated from repeated measurements and range from poor (<0.4) to excellent (≥0.75). Several studies have reported ICCs based on diverse study designs, but an overview, including recommendations for future studies, was lacking. Therefore, this review aimed to collect studies describing ICCs of non-persistent organic chemicals, discuss variations due to study design and formulate recommendations for future studies. More than 60 studies were selected, considering various chemical classes: bisphenols, pyrethroids, parabens, phthalates, alternative plasticizers and phosphate flame retardants. The variation in ICCs for an individual chemical was high (e.g. ICC of propyl paraben = 0.28-0.91), showing the large impact of the study design and of the specific exposure sources. The highest ICCs were reported for parabens (median = 0.52), while lowest ICCs were for 3-phenoxybenzoic acid (median = 0.08) and bisphenol A (median = 0.20). Overall, chemicals that had an exposure source with high variation, such as the diet, showed lower ICCs than those with more stable exposure sources, such as indoor materials. Urine correction by specific gravity had an overall positive effect on reducing the variability of ICCs. However, this effect was mostly seen in the adult population, while specific compounds showed less variation with creatinine correction. Single samples might not accurately capture the exposure to most non-persistent organic chemicals, especially when small populations are sampled. Future studies that examine compounds with low ICCs should take adequate measures to improve accuracy, such as correcting dilution with specific gravity or collecting multiple samples for one participant.

Comprehensive investigation of persistent and mobile chemicals and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in urine of flemish adolescents using a suspect screening approach

Persistent and mobile chemicals (PMs) and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are groups of chemicals that have received recent global attention due to their potential health effects on the environment and humans. In this study, exposure to a broad range of PMs and PFAS was investigated in Flemish adolescents' urine samples (n = 83) using a suspect screening approach. For this purpose, three sample preparation methods were evaluated, and a basic liquid-liquid extraction was optimized for urine analysis based on the extraction efficiency of PMs (53-80%) and PFAS (>70%). In total, 9 PMs were identified in urine samples at confidence levels (CL) 1-3 and, among them, acetaminophen, 4-aminophenol, 2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-4-piperidone, trifluoroacetic acid (TFAA), sulisobenzone, ethyl sulfate, and 1,2-benzisothiazol-3(2H)-one 1,1-dioxide were confirmed at CL 1 and 2. In addition, the detection and identification of 2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-4-piperidone, 4-aminophenol, TFAA, and m-(2,3-epoxypropoxy)-N,N-bis(2,3-epoxypropyl) aniline (CL 3), has been reported for the first time in human urine in this study. For PFAS, only 2 compounds were identified at CL 4, implying that urine is not a suitable matrix for suspect screening of such compounds. A significant difference between sexes was observed in the detection rate of identified PMs, in particular for acetaminophen, 4-aminophenol, and sulisobenzone. The findings of this study can be used in future human biomonitoring programs, such as by including the newly identified compounds in quantitative methods or monitoring in other human matrices (e.g., serum).

Comprehensive suspect screening for the identification of contaminants of emerging concern in urine of Flemish adolescents by liquid chromatography high-resolution mass spectrometry

The increasing human exposure to contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) cannot be fully assessed by targeted biomonitoring methods alone as these are limited to a subset of known analytes. On the contrary, suspect screening approaches based on liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) allow the simultaneous detection of a high number of CECs and/or their (predicted) metabolites leading to a more comprehensive assessment of possible human exposure to these compounds. Within this study, 83 urine samples of Flemish adolescents (47 males, 36 females) collected in the frame of the 4th cycle of the Flemish Environment and Health Study (FLEHS IV) were selected with the aim of including a high and a low exposure group based on the overall exposure of 45 known contaminants. Samples were analyzed using a previously developed method involving a suspect screening approach to annotate CECs and their metabolites. The applied suspect list contained a total of >12,500 CECs and their known and predicted metabolites resulting from metabolization reactions, such as hydroxylation, glucuronidation and methylation. In total, 63 compounds were annotated at a confidence level of 3 or better, with most of the detected compounds not included in current biomonitoring programs. 5 out of the 63 compounds could be assigned with confidence level 2. Five compounds could unequivocally be identified (confidence level 1) through the comparison with reference standards. Personal care products were the main detected compound class (42% of detected compounds). Additionally, a detailed literature search indicated potential toxic effects for several of the detected CECs. Lastly, in the urine samples, a significantly higher number (p < 0.05) of compounds was detected in the high exposure group as opposed to the low exposure group. This difference could only be observed between high and low exposure load samples of female participants (p < 0.01).