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Decembrino D, Raffaele A, Knöfel R, Girhard M, Urlacher VB. Synthesis of (-)-deoxypodophyllotoxin and (-)-epipodophyllotoxin via a multi-enzyme cascade in E. coli. Microb Cell Fact 2021; 20:183. [PMID: 34544406 PMCID: PMC8454061 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-021-01673-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The aryltetralin lignan (−)−podophyllotoxin is a potent antiviral and anti-neoplastic compound that is mainly found in Podophyllum plant species. Over the years, the commercial demand for this compound rose notably because of the high clinical importance of its semi-synthetic chemotherapeutic derivatives etoposide and teniposide. To satisfy this demand, (−)−podophyllotoxin is conventionally isolated from the roots and rhizomes of Sinopodophyllum hexandrum, which can only grow in few regions and is now endangered by overexploitation and environmental damage. For these reasons, targeting the biosynthesis of (−)−podophyllotoxin precursors or analogues is fundamental for the development of novel, more sustainable supply routes. Results We recently established a four-step multi-enzyme cascade to convert (+)−pinoresinol into (−)−matairesinol in E. coli. Herein, a five-step multi-enzyme biotransformation of (−)−matairesinol to (−)−deoxypodophyllotoxin was proven effective with 98 % yield at a concentration of 78 mg/L. Furthermore, the extension of this cascade to a sixth step leading to (−)−epipodophyllotoxin was evaluated. To this end, seven enzymes were combined in the reconstituted pathway involving inter alia three plant cytochrome P450 monooxygenases, with two of them being functionally expressed in E. coli for the first time. Conclusions Both, (−)−deoxypodophyllotoxin and (−)−epipodophyllotoxin, are direct precursors to etoposide and teniposide. Thus, the reconstitution of biosynthetic reactions of Sinopodophyllum hexandrum as an effective multi-enzyme cascade in E. coli represents a solid step forward towards a more sustainable production of these essential pharmaceuticals. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12934-021-01673-5.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davide Decembrino
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstraße 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Alessandra Raffaele
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstraße 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Ronja Knöfel
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstraße 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Marco Girhard
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstraße 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Vlada B Urlacher
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstraße 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany.
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Decembrino D, Girhard M, Urlacher VB. Use of Copper as a Trigger for the in Vivo Activity of E. coli Laccase CueO: A Simple Tool for Biosynthetic Purposes. Chembiochem 2021; 22:1470-1479. [PMID: 33332702 PMCID: PMC8248233 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202000775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2020] [Revised: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Laccases are multi-copper oxidases that catalyze the oxidation of various electron-rich substrates with concomitant reduction of molecular oxygen to water. The multi-copper oxidase/laccase CueO of Escherichia coli is responsible for the oxidation of Cu+ to the less harmful Cu2+ in the periplasm. CueO has a relatively broad substrate spectrum as laccase, and its activity is enhanced by copper excess. The aim of this study was to trigger CueO activity in vivo for the use in biocatalysis. The addition of 5 mM CuSO4 was proven effective in triggering CueO activity at need with minor toxic effects on E. coli cells. Cu-treated E. coli cells were able to convert several phenolic compounds to the corresponding dimers. Finally, the endogenous CueO activity was applied to a four-step cascade, in which coniferyl alcohol was converted to the valuable plant lignan (-)-matairesinol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davide Decembrino
- Institute of BiochemistryHeinrich-Heine University DüsseldorfUniversitätsstrasse 140225DüsseldorfGermany
| | - Marco Girhard
- Institute of BiochemistryHeinrich-Heine University DüsseldorfUniversitätsstrasse 140225DüsseldorfGermany
| | - Vlada B. Urlacher
- Institute of BiochemistryHeinrich-Heine University DüsseldorfUniversitätsstrasse 140225DüsseldorfGermany
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Decembrino D, Ricklefs E, Wohlgemuth S, Girhard M, Schullehner K, Jach G, Urlacher VB. Assembly of Plant Enzymes in E. coli for the Production of the Valuable (-)-Podophyllotoxin Precursor (-)-Pluviatolide. ACS Synth Biol 2020; 9:3091-3103. [PMID: 33095000 DOI: 10.1021/acssynbio.0c00354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Lignans are plant secondary metabolites with a wide range of reported health-promoting bioactivities. Traditional routes toward these natural products involve, among others, the extraction from plant sources and chemical synthesis. However, the availability of the sources and the complex chemical structures of lignans often limit the feasibility of these approaches. In this work, we introduce a newly assembled biosynthetic route in E. coli for the efficient conversion of the common higher-lignan precursor (+)-pinoresinol to the noncommercially available (-)-pluviatolide via three intermediates. (-)-Pluviatolide is considered a crossroad compound in lignan biosynthesis, because the methylenedioxy bridge in its structure, resulting from the oxidation of (-)-matairesinol, channels the biosynthetic pathway toward the microtubule depolymerizer (-)-podophyllotoxin. This oxidation reaction is catalyzed with high regio- and enantioselectivity by a cytochrome P450 monooxygenase from Sinopodophyllum hexandrum (CYP719A23), which was expressed and optimized regarding redox partners in E. coli. Pinoresinol-lariciresinol reductase from Forsythia intermedia (FiPLR), secoisolariciresinol dehydrogenase from Podophyllum pleianthum (PpSDH), and CYP719A23 were coexpressed together with a suitable NADPH-dependent reductase to ensure P450 activity, allowing for four sequential biotransformations without intermediate isolation. By using an E. coli strain coexpressing the enzymes originating from four plants, (+)-pinoresinol was efficiently converted, allowing the isolation of enantiopure (-)-pluviatolide at a concentration of 137 mg/L (ee ≥99% with 76% isolated yield).
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Affiliation(s)
- Davide Decembrino
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstraße 1, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Esther Ricklefs
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstraße 1, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Stefan Wohlgemuth
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstraße 1, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Marco Girhard
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstraße 1, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Katrin Schullehner
- Phytowelt Green Technologies GmbH, Kölsumer Weg 33, 41334 Nettetal, Germany
| | - Guido Jach
- Phytowelt Green Technologies GmbH, Kölsumer Weg 33, 41334 Nettetal, Germany
| | - Vlada B. Urlacher
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstraße 1, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
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4
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Thesseling FA, Hutter MC, Wiek C, Kowalski JP, Rettie AE, Girhard M. Novel insights into oxidation of fatty acids and fatty alcohols by cytochrome P450 monooxygenase CYP4B1. Arch Biochem Biophys 2020; 679:108216. [PMID: 31801692 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2019.108216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2019] [Revised: 11/26/2019] [Accepted: 11/29/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
CYP4B1 is an enigmatic mammalian cytochrome P450 monooxygenase acting at the interface between xenobiotic and endobiotic metabolism. A prominent CYP4B1 substrate is the furan pro-toxin 4-ipomeanol (IPO). Our recent investigation on metabolism of IPO related compounds that maintain the furan functionality of IPO while replacing its alcohol group with alkyl chains of varying structure and length revealed that, in addition to cytotoxic reactive metabolite formation (resulting from furan activation) non-cytotoxic ω-hydroxylation at the alkyl chain can also occur. We hypothesized that substrate reorientations may happen in the active site of CYP4B1. These findings prompted us to re-investigate oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids and fatty alcohols with C9-C16 carbon chain length by CYP4B1. Strikingly, we found that besides the previously reported ω- and ω-1-hydroxylations, CYP4B1 is also capable of α-, β-, γ-, and δ-fatty acid hydroxylation. In contrast, fatty alcohols of the same chain length are exclusively hydroxylated at ω, ω-1, and ω-2 positions. Docking results for the corresponding CYP4B1-substrate complexes revealed that fatty acids can adopt U-shaped bonding conformations, such that carbon atoms in both arms may approach the heme-iron. Quantum chemical estimates of activation energies of the hydrogen radical abstraction by the reactive compound 1 as well as electron densities of the substrate orbitals led to the conclusion that fatty acid and fatty alcohol oxidations by CYP4B1 are kinetically controlled reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian A Thesseling
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany.
| | - Michael C Hutter
- Center for Bioinformatics, Saarland University, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany.
| | - Constanze Wiek
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology and Head/Neck Surgery, Heinrich-Heine University, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany.
| | - John P Kowalski
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA.
| | - Allan E Rettie
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA.
| | - Marco Girhard
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany.
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Kowalski JP, McDonald MG, Whittington D, Guttman M, Scian M, Girhard M, Hanenberg H, Wiek C, Rettie AE. Structure–Activity Relationships for CYP4B1 Bioactivation of 4-Ipomeanol Congeners: Direct Correlation between Cytotoxicity and Trapped Reactive Intermediates. Chem Res Toxicol 2019; 32:2488-2498. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.9b00330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- John P. Kowalski
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98105, United States
| | - Matthew G. McDonald
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98105, United States
| | - Dale Whittington
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98105, United States
| | - Miklos Guttman
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98105, United States
| | - Michele Scian
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98105, United States
| | - Marco Girhard
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Helmut Hanenberg
- Department of Pediatrics III, University Children’s Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, 45122 Essen, Germany
| | - Constanze Wiek
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology and Head/Neck Surgery, Heinrich-Heine University, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Allan E. Rettie
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98105, United States
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Worsch A, Eggimann FK, Girhard M, von Bühler CJ, Tieves F, Czaja R, Vogel A, Grumaz C, Sohn K, Lütz S, Kittelmann M, Urlacher VB. A novel cytochrome P450 mono-oxygenase from Streptomyces platensis resembles activities of human drug metabolizing P450s. Biotechnol Bioeng 2018; 115:2156-2166. [PMID: 29943426 DOI: 10.1002/bit.26781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2017] [Revised: 03/28/2018] [Accepted: 06/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 mono-oxygenases (P450) are versatile enzymes which play essential roles in C-source assimilation, secondary metabolism, and in degradations of endo- and exogenous xenobiotics. In humans, several P450 isoforms constitute the largest part of phase I metabolizing enzymes and catalyze oxidation reactions which convert lipophilic xenobiotics, including drugs, to more water soluble species. Recombinant human P450s and microorganisms are applied in the pharmaceutical industry for the synthesis of drug metabolites for pharmacokinetics and toxicity studies. Compared to the membrane-bound eukaryotic P450s, prokaryotic ones exhibit some advantageous features, such as high stability and generally easier heterologous expression. Here, we describe a novel P450 from Streptomyces platensis DSM 40041 classified as CYP107L that efficiently converts several commercial drugs of various size and properties. This P450 was identified by screening of actinobacterial strains for amodiaquine and ritonavir metabolizing activities, followed by genome sequencing and expression of the annotated S. platensis P450s in Escherichia coli. Performance of CYP107L in biotransformations of amodiaquine, ritonavir, amitriptyline, and thioridazine resembles activities of the main human metabolizing P450s, namely CYPs 3A4, 2C8, 2C19, and 2D6. For application in the pharmaceutical industry, an E. coli whole-cell biocatalyst expressing CYP107L was developed and evaluated for preparative amodiaquine metabolite production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Worsch
- Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Institute of Biochemistry, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | | | - Marco Girhard
- Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Institute of Biochemistry, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Clemens J von Bühler
- Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Institute of Biochemistry, Düsseldorf, Germany.,Present address: Bayer AG, Drug Discovery, Pharmaceuticals DM, Wuppertal, Germany
| | - Florian Tieves
- Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Institute of Biochemistry, Düsseldorf, Germany.,Present address: Department of Biotechnology, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
| | | | | | - Christian Grumaz
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Fraunhofer Institute for Interfacial Engineering and Biotechnology, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Kai Sohn
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Fraunhofer Institute for Interfacial Engineering and Biotechnology, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Stephan Lütz
- Novartis Pharma AG, Basel, Switzerland.,Present address:, Technische Universität Dortmund, Bio- und Chemieingenieurwesen, Bioprozesstechnik, Dortmund, Germany
| | | | - Vlada B Urlacher
- Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Institute of Biochemistry, Düsseldorf, Germany
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7
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Bakkes PJ, Riehm JL, Sagadin T, Rühlmann A, Schubert P, Biemann S, Girhard M, Hutter MC, Bernhardt R, Urlacher VB. Engineering of versatile redox partner fusions that support monooxygenase activity of functionally diverse cytochrome P450s. Sci Rep 2017; 7:9570. [PMID: 28852040 PMCID: PMC5575160 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-10075-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2016] [Accepted: 08/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Most bacterial cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (P450s or CYPs) require two redox partner proteins for activity. To reduce complexity of the redox chain, the Bacillus subtilis flavodoxin YkuN (Y) was fused to the Escherichia coli flavodoxin reductase Fpr (R), and activity was tuned by placing flexible (GGGGS)n or rigid ([E/L]PPPP)n linkers (n = 1–5) in between. P-linker constructs typically outperformed their G-linker counterparts, with superior performance of YR-P5, which carries linker ([E/L]PPPP)5. Molecular dynamics simulations demonstrated that ([E/L]PPPP)n linkers are intrinsically rigid, whereas (GGGGS)n linkers are highly flexible and biochemical experiments suggest a higher degree of separation between the fusion partners in case of long rigid P-linkers. The catalytic properties of the individual redox partners were best preserved in the YR-P5 construct. In comparison to the separate redox partners, YR-P5 exhibited attenuated rates of NADPH oxidation and heme iron (III) reduction, while coupling efficiency was improved (28% vs. 49% coupling with B. subtilis CYP109B1, and 44% vs. 50% with Thermobifida fusca CYP154E1). In addition, YR-P5 supported monooxygenase activity of the CYP106A2 from Bacillus megaterium and bovine CYP21A2. The versatile YR-P5 may serve as a non-physiological electron transfer system for exploitation of the catalytic potential of other P450s.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick J Bakkes
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Jan L Riehm
- Center for Bioinformatics, Saarland University, Campus Building E2.1, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Tanja Sagadin
- Institute of Biochemistry, Saarland University, Campus Building B2.2, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Ansgar Rühlmann
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Peter Schubert
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Stefan Biemann
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Marco Girhard
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Michael C Hutter
- Center for Bioinformatics, Saarland University, Campus Building E2.1, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Rita Bernhardt
- Institute of Biochemistry, Saarland University, Campus Building B2.2, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Vlada B Urlacher
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany.
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Roellecke K, Jäger VD, Gyurov VH, Kowalski JP, Mielke S, Rettie AE, Hanenberg H, Wiek C, Girhard M. Ligand characterization of CYP4B1 isoforms modified for high-level expression in Escherichia coli and HepG2 cells. Protein Eng Des Sel 2017; 30:205-216. [PMID: 28073960 PMCID: PMC5421619 DOI: 10.1093/protein/gzw075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2016] [Accepted: 12/06/2016] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Human CYP4B1, a cytochrome P450 monooxygenase predominantly expressed in the lung, inefficiently metabolizes classical CYP4B1 substrates, such as the naturally occurring furan pro-toxin 4-ipomeanol (4-IPO). Highly active animal forms of the enzyme convert 4-IPO to reactive alkylating metabolite(s) that bind(s) to cellular macromolecules. By substitution of 13 amino acids, we restored the enzymatic activity of human CYP4B1 toward 4-IPO and this modified cDNA is potentially valuable as a suicide gene for adoptive T-cell therapies. In order to find novel pro-toxins, we tested numerous furan analogs in in vitro cell culture cytotoxicity assays by expressing the wild-type rabbit and variants of human CYP4B1 in human liver-derived HepG2 cells. To evaluate the CYP4B1 substrate specificities and furan analog catalysis, we optimized the N-terminal sequence of the CYP4B1 variants by modification/truncation and established their heterologous expression in Escherichia coli (yielding 70 and 800 nmol·l-1 of recombinant human and rabbit enzyme, respectively). Finally, spectral binding affinities and oxidative metabolism of the furan analogs by the purified recombinant CYP4B1 variants were analyzed: the naturally occurring perilla ketone was found to be the tightest binder to CYP4B1, but also the analog that was most extensively metabolized by oxidative processes to numerous non-reactive reaction products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Roellecke
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology and Head/Neck Surgery, Heinrich-Heine University, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Vera D Jäger
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Veselin H Gyurov
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - John P Kowalski
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Stephanie Mielke
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Allan E Rettie
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Helmut Hanenberg
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology and Head/Neck Surgery, Heinrich-Heine University, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany.,Department of Pediatrics III, University Children's Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, 45122 Essen, Germany
| | - Constanze Wiek
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology and Head/Neck Surgery, Heinrich-Heine University, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Marco Girhard
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
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Schulz S, Schumacher D, Raszkowski D, Girhard M, Urlacher VB. Fusion to Hydrophobin HFBI Improves the Catalytic Performance of a Cytochrome P450 System. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2016; 4:57. [PMID: 27458582 PMCID: PMC4930934 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2016.00057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2016] [Accepted: 06/22/2016] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (P450) are heme-containing enzymes that oxidize a broad range of substrates in the presence of molecular oxygen and NAD(P)H. For their activity, most P450s rely on one or two redox proteins responsible for the transfer of electrons from the cofactor NAD(P)H to the heme. One of the challenges when using P450s in vitro, especially when non-physiological redox proteins are applied, is the inefficient transfer of electrons between the individual proteins resulting in non-productive consumption of NAD(P)H - referred to as uncoupling. Herein, we describe the improvement of the coupling efficiency between a P450 and its redox partner - diflavin reductase - by fusing both enzymes individually to the hydrophobin HFBI - a small self-assembling protein of the fungus Trichoderma reesei. The separated monooxygenase (BMO) and reductase (BMR) domains of P450 BM3 from Bacillus megaterium were chosen as a P450-reductase model system and individually fused to HFBI. The fusion proteins could be expressed in soluble form in Escherichia coli. When HFBI-fused BMO and BMR were mixed in vitro, substantially higher coupling efficiencies were measured as compared with the respective non-fused enzymes. Consequently, myristic acid conversion increased up to 20-fold (after 6 h) and 5-fold (after 24 h). Size exclusion chromatography demonstrated that in vitro the hydrophobin-fused enzymes build multimeric protein assemblies. Thus, the higher activity is hypothesized to be due to HFBI-mediated self-assembly arranging BMO and BMR in close spatial proximity in aqueous solution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Schulz
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf , Düsseldorf , Germany
| | - Dominik Schumacher
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf , Düsseldorf , Germany
| | - Daniel Raszkowski
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf , Düsseldorf , Germany
| | - Marco Girhard
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf , Düsseldorf , Germany
| | - Vlada B Urlacher
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf , Düsseldorf , Germany
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10
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Ricklefs E, Girhard M, Urlacher VB. Three-steps in one-pot: whole-cell biocatalytic synthesis of enantiopure (+)- and (-)-pinoresinol via kinetic resolution. Microb Cell Fact 2016; 15:78. [PMID: 27160378 PMCID: PMC4862135 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-016-0472-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2016] [Accepted: 04/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Pinoresinol is a high-value plant-derived lignan with multiple health supporting effects. Enantiomerically pure pinoresinol can be isolated from natural sources, but with low efficiency. Most chemical and biocatalytic approaches that have been described for the synthesis of pinoresinol furnish the racemic mixture. In this study we devised a three-step biocatalytic cascade for the production of enantiomerically pure pinoresinol from the cheap compound eugenol. Two consecutive oxidations of eugenol through vanillyl-alcohol oxidase and laccase are followed by kinetic resolution of racemic pinoresinol by enantiospecific pinoresinol reductases. Results The addition of the enantiospecific pinoresinol reductase from Arabidopsis thaliana for kinetic resolution of (±)-pinoresinol to an in vitro cascade involving the vanillyl-alcohol oxidase from Penicillium simplicissimum and the bacterial laccase CgL1 from Corynebacterium glutamicum resulted in increasing ee values for (+)-pinoresinol; however, an ee value of 34 % was achieved in the best case. The ee value could be increased up to ≥99 % by applying Escherichia coli-based whole-cell biocatalysts. The optimized process operated in a one-pot “two-cell” sequential mode and yielded 876 µM (+)-pinoresinol with an ee value of 98 %. Switching the reductase to the enantiospecific pinoresinol lariciresinol reductase from Forsythia intermedia enabled the production of 610 µM (−)-pinoresinol with an ee value of 97 %. Conclusion A new approach for the synthesis of enantiomerically pure (+)- and (−)-pinoresinol is described that combines three biotransformation steps in one pot. By switching the reductase in the last step, the whole-cell biocatalysts can be directed to produce either (+)- or (−)-pinoresinol. The products of the reductases’ activity, (−)-lariciresinol and (−)-secoisolariciresinol, are valuable precursors that can also be applied for the synthesis of further lignans. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12934-016-0472-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther Ricklefs
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University, Universitätsstraße 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Marco Girhard
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University, Universitätsstraße 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Vlada B Urlacher
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University, Universitätsstraße 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany.
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Bakkes PJ, Biemann S, Bokel A, Eickholt M, Girhard M, Urlacher VB. Design and improvement of artificial redox modules by molecular fusion of flavodoxin and flavodoxin reductase from Escherichia coli. Sci Rep 2015; 5:12158. [PMID: 26177696 PMCID: PMC4503991 DOI: 10.1038/srep12158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2015] [Accepted: 06/19/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
A variety of fusion proteins between the versatile redox partners flavodoxin (FldA) and flavodoxin reductase (Fpr) from Escherichia coli was constructed with the aim to improve the electron transfer properties. The order in which FldA and Fpr were fused and the linker region between them was varied in a systematic manner. A simple molecular tool, designated "DuaLinX", was developed that facilitated the parallel introduction of flexible glycine-rich and rigid proline-rich linkers between the fusion partners in a single cloning event. The fusion constructs were tested for their ability to transfer electrons to cytochrome c and cytochrome P450 109B1 from Bacillus subtilis. With CYP109B1, the performance of the constructs showed, independent of the domain order, a strong dependency on linker length, whereas with cytochrome c this phenomenon was less pronounced. Constructs carrying linkers of ≥15 residues effectively supported the CYP109B1-catalysed hydroxylation of myristic acid. Constructs carrying proline-rich linkers generally outperformed their glycine-rich counterparts. The best construct, FldA-Fpr carrying linker ([E/L]PPPP)4, supported CYP109B1 activity equally well as equivalent amounts of the non-fused redox partners, while cytochrome c reductase activity was ~2.7-fold improved. Thus, to functionally connect redox partners, rigid proline-rich linkers may be attractive alternatives to the commonly used flexible glycine-rich linkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick J Bakkes
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Stefan Biemann
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Ansgar Bokel
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Marc Eickholt
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Marco Girhard
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Vlada B Urlacher
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
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Ricklefs E, Girhard M, Koschorreck K, Smit MS, Urlacher VB. Two-Step One-Pot Synthesis of Pinoresinol from Eugenol in an Enzymatic Cascade. ChemCatChem 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/cctc.201500182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Schulz S, Girhard M, Gaßmeyer SK, Jäger VD, Schwarze D, Vogel A, Urlacher VB. Selective Enzymatic Synthesis of the Grapefruit Flavor (+)-Nootkatone. ChemCatChem 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/cctc.201402952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Khatri Y, Hannemann F, Girhard M, Kappl R, Hutter M, Urlacher VB, Bernhardt R. A natural heme-signature variant of CYP267A1 fromSorangium cellulosumSo ce56 executes diverse ω-hydroxylation. FEBS J 2014; 282:74-88. [DOI: 10.1111/febs.13104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2014] [Revised: 09/30/2014] [Accepted: 10/06/2014] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Yogan Khatri
- Department of Biochemistry; Saarland University; Saarbrücken Germany
| | - Frank Hannemann
- Department of Biochemistry; Saarland University; Saarbrücken Germany
| | - Marco Girhard
- Institute of Biochemistry; Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf; Germany
| | - Reinhard Kappl
- Department of Biophysics; Saarland University; Homburg Germany
| | - Michael Hutter
- Center for Bioinformatics; Saarland University; Saarbrücken Germany
| | - Vlada B. Urlacher
- Institute of Biochemistry; Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf; Germany
| | - Rita Bernhardt
- Department of Biochemistry; Saarland University; Saarbrücken Germany
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Paul CE, Churakova E, Maurits E, Girhard M, Urlacher VB, Hollmann F. In situ formation of H2O2 for P450 peroxygenases. Bioorg Med Chem 2014; 22:5692-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2014.05.074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2014] [Revised: 05/23/2014] [Accepted: 05/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Girhard M, Kunigk E, Tihovsky S, Shumyantseva VV, Urlacher VB. Light-driven biocatalysis with cytochrome P450 peroxygenases. Biotechnol Appl Biochem 2013; 60:111-8. [DOI: 10.1002/bab.1063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2012] [Accepted: 11/19/2012] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Marco Girhard
- Institute of Biochemistry; Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf; Düsseldorf; Germany
| | - Elmar Kunigk
- Institute of Biochemistry; Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf; Düsseldorf; Germany
| | - Svetlana Tihovsky
- Institute of Technical Biochemistry; Universität Stuttgart; Stuttgart; Germany
| | | | - Vlada B. Urlacher
- Institute of Biochemistry; Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf; Düsseldorf; Germany
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Girhard M, Tieves F, Weber E, Smit MS, Urlacher VB. Cytochrome P450 reductase from Candida apicola: versatile redox partner for bacterial P450s. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2012; 97:1625-35. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-012-4026-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2012] [Revised: 03/13/2012] [Accepted: 03/14/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Urlacher VB, Girhard M. Cytochrome P450 monooxygenases: an update on perspectives for synthetic application. Trends Biotechnol 2012; 30:26-36. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2011.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 342] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2011] [Revised: 06/10/2011] [Accepted: 06/16/2011] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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Khatri Y, Girhard M, Romankiewicz A, Ringle M, Hannemann F, Urlacher VB, Hutter MC, Bernhardt R. Regioselective hydroxylation of norisoprenoids by CYP109D1 from Sorangium cellulosum So ce56. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2010; 88:485-95. [PMID: 20645086 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-010-2756-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2010] [Revised: 06/29/2010] [Accepted: 06/29/2010] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Sesquiterpenes are particularly interesting as flavorings and fragrances or as pharmaceuticals. Regio- or stereoselective functionalizations of terpenes are one of the main goals of synthetic organic chemistry, which are possible through radical reactions but are not selective enough to introduce the desired chiral alcohol function into those compounds. Cytochrome P450 monooxygenases are versatile biocatalysts and are capable of performing selective oxidations of organic molecules. We were able to demonstrate that CYP109D1 from Sorangium cellulosum So ce56 functions as a biocatalyst for the highly regioselective hydroxylation of norisoprenoids, alpha- and beta-ionone, which are important aroma compounds of floral scents. The substrates alpha- and beta-ionone were regioselectively hydroxylated to 3-hydroxy-alpha-ionone and 4-hydroxy-beta-ionone, respectively, which was confirmed by (1)H NMR and (13)C NMR. The results of docking alpha- and beta-ionone into a homology model of CYP109D1 gave a rational explanation for the regio-selectivity of the hydroxylation. Kinetic studies revealed that alpha- and beta-ionone can be hydroxylated with nearly identical V (max) and K (m) values. This is the first comprehensive investigation of the regioselective hydroxylation of norisoprenoids by CYP109D1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yogan Khatri
- Department of Biochemistry, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
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Girhard M, Klaus T, Khatri Y, Bernhardt R, Urlacher VB. Characterization of the versatile monooxygenase CYP109B1 from Bacillus subtilis. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2010; 87:595-607. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-010-2472-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2009] [Revised: 01/25/2010] [Accepted: 01/25/2010] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Girhard M, Machida K, Itoh M, Schmid RD, Arisawa A, Urlacher VB. Regioselective biooxidation of (+)-valencene by recombinant E. coli expressing CYP109B1 from Bacillus subtilis in a two-liquid-phase system. Microb Cell Fact 2009; 8:36. [PMID: 19591681 PMCID: PMC2717049 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2859-8-36] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2009] [Accepted: 07/10/2009] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background (+)-Nootkatone (4) is a high added-value compound found in grapefruit juice. Allylic oxidation of the sesquiterpene (+)-valencene (1) provides an attractive route to this sought-after flavoring. So far, chemical methods to produce (+)-nootkatone (4) from (+)-valencene (1) involve unsafe toxic compounds, whereas several biotechnological approaches applied yield large amounts of undesirable byproducts. In the present work 125 cytochrome P450 enzymes from bacteria were tested for regioselective oxidation of (+)-valencene (1) at allylic C2-position to produce (+)-nootkatone (4) via cis- (2) or trans-nootkatol (3). The P450 activity was supported by the co-expression of putidaredoxin reductase (PdR) and putidaredoxin (Pdx) from Pseudomonas putida in Escherichia coli. Results Addressing the whole-cell system, the cytochrome CYP109B1 from Bacillus subtilis was found to catalyze the oxidation of (+)-valencene (1) yielding nootkatol (2 and 3) and (+)-nootkatone (4). However, when the in vivo biooxidation of (+)-valencene (1) with CYP109B1 was carried out in an aqueous milieu, a number of undesired multi-oxygenated products has also been observed accounting for approximately 35% of the total product. The formation of these byproducts was significantly reduced when aqueous-organic two-liquid-phase systems with four water immiscible organic solvents – isooctane, n-octane, dodecane or hexadecane – were set up, resulting in accumulation of nootkatol (2 and 3) and (+)-nootkatone (4) of up to 97% of the total product. The best productivity of 120 mg l-1 of desired products was achieved within 8 h in the system comprising 10% dodecane. Conclusion This study demonstrates that the identification of new P450s capable of producing valuable compounds can basically be achieved by screening of recombinant P450 libraries. The biphasic reaction system described in this work presents an attractive way for the production of (+)-nootkatone (4), as it is safe and can easily be controlled and scaled up.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Girhard
- Institute of Technical Biochemistry, Universitaet Stuttgart, Allmandring 31, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany.
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Girhard M, Schuster S, Dietrich M, Dürre P, Urlacher VB. Cytochrome P450 monooxygenase from Clostridium acetobutylicum: A new α-fatty acid hydroxylase. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2007; 362:114-119. [PMID: 17706598 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2007.07.155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2007] [Accepted: 07/28/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 monooxygenase from the anaerobic microorganism Clostridium acetobutylicum (CYP152A2) has been produced in Escherichia coli. CYP152A2 was shown to bind a broad range of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids and corresponding methyl esters and demonstrated a high peroxygenase activity of up to 200min(-1) with myristic acid. Although a high concentration of hydrogen peroxide of 200microM was necessary for high activities of the enzyme, it led to a fast enzyme inactivation within 2-4min. This might reflect the natural function of CYP152A2 as a rapid hydrogen peroxide scavenging enzyme. In two different reconstituted systems with NADPH, CYP152A2 was able to convert 10 times more substrate, if provided with flavodoxin and flavodoxin reductase from E. coli and even 30-40 times more substrate with the CYP102A1-reductase from Bacillus megaterium. According to the clear preference for hydroxylation at alpha-position, CYP152A2 can be referred to as fatty acid alpha-hydroxylase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Girhard
- Institute of Technical Biochemistry, University of Stuttgart, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Stefanie Schuster
- Institute of Microbiology and Biotechnology, University of Ulm, 89069 Ulm, Germany
| | - Matthias Dietrich
- Institute of Technical Biochemistry, University of Stuttgart, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Peter Dürre
- Institute of Microbiology and Biotechnology, University of Ulm, 89069 Ulm, Germany
| | - Vlada B Urlacher
- Institute of Technical Biochemistry, University of Stuttgart, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany.
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