Astrocytes produce nitric oxide via nitrite reduction in mitochondria to regulate cerebral blood flow during brain hypoxia

During hypoxia, increases in cerebral blood flow maintain brain oxygen delivery. Here, we describe a mechanism of brain oxygen sensing that mediates the dilation of intraparenchymal cerebral blood vessels in response to reductions in oxygen supply. In vitro and in vivo experiments conducted in rodent models show that during hypoxia, cortical astrocytes produce the potent vasodilator nitric oxide (NO) via nitrite reduction in mitochondria. Inhibition of mitochondrial respiration mimics, but also occludes, the effect of hypoxia on NO production in astrocytes. Astrocytes display high expression of the molybdenum-cofactor-containing mitochondrial enzyme sulfite oxidase, which can catalyze nitrite reduction in hypoxia. Replacement of molybdenum with tungsten or knockdown of sulfite oxidase expression in astrocytes blocks hypoxia-induced NO production by these glial cells and reduces the cerebrovascular response to hypoxia. These data identify astrocyte mitochondria as brain oxygen sensors that regulate cerebral blood flow during hypoxia via release of nitric oxide.

Dissociation Between Neuronal and Astrocytic Calcium Activity in Response to Locomotion in Mice

Locomotion triggers a coordinated response of both neurons and astrocytes in the brain. Here we performed calcium (Ca²⁺) imaging of these two cell types in the somatosensory cortex in head-fixed mice moving on the airlifted platform. Ca²⁺ activity in astrocytes significantly increased during locomotion from a low quiescence level. Ca²⁺ signals first appeared in the distal processes and then propagated to astrocytic somata, where it became significantly larger and exhibited oscillatory behaviour. Thus, astrocytic soma operates as both integrator and amplifier of Ca²⁺ signal. In neurons, Ca²⁺ activity was pronounced in quiescent periods and further increased during locomotion. Neuronal Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i) rose almost immediately following the onset of locomotion, whereas astrocytic Ca²⁺ signals lagged by several seconds. Such a long lag suggests that astrocytic [Ca²⁺]_i elevations are unlikely to be triggered by the activity of synapses among local neurons. Ca²⁺ responses to pairs of consecutive episodes of locomotion did not significantly differ in neurons, while were significantly diminished in response to the second locomotion in astrocytes. Such astrocytic refractoriness may arise from distinct mechanisms underlying Ca²⁺ signal generation. In neurons, the bulk of Ca²⁺ enters through the Ca²⁺ channels in the plasma membrane allowing for steady-level Ca²⁺ elevations in repetitive runs. Astrocytic Ca²⁺ responses originate from the intracellular stores, the depletion of which affects subsequent Ca²⁺ signals. Functionally, neuronal Ca²⁺ response reflects sensory input processed by neurons. Astrocytic Ca²⁺ dynamics is likely to provide metabolic and homeostatic support within the brain active milieu.

Attenuation of the extracellular matrix increases the number of synapses but suppresses synaptic plasticity through upregulation of SK channels

The effect of brain extracellular matrix (ECM) on synaptic plasticity remains controversial. Here, we show that targeted enzymatic attenuation with chondroitinase ABC (ChABC) of ECM triggers the appearance of new glutamatergic synapses on hippocampal pyramidal neurons, thereby increasing the amplitude of field EPSPs while decreasing both the mean miniature EPSC amplitude and AMPA/NMDA ratio. Although the increased proportion of 'unpotentiated' synapses caused by ECM attenuation should promote long-term potentiation (LTP), surprisingly, LTP was suppressed. The upregulation of small conductance Ca²⁺-activated K⁺ (SK) channels decreased the excitability of pyramidal neurons, thereby suppressing LTP. A blockade of SK channels restored cell excitability and enhanced LTP; this enhancement was abolished by a blockade of Rho-associated protein kinase (ROCK), which is involved in the maturation of dendritic spines. Thus, targeting ECM elicits the appearance of new synapses, which can have potential applications in regenerative medicine. However, this process is compensated for by a reduction in postsynaptic neuron excitability, preventing network overexcitation at the expense of synaptic plasticity.

Tonic GABAA conductance decreases membrane time constant and increases EPSP-spike precision in hippocampal pyramidal neurons

Because of a complex dendritic structure, pyramidal neurons have a large membrane surface relative to other cells and so a large electrical capacitance and a large membrane time constant (τ_m). This results in slow depolarizations in response to excitatory synaptic inputs, and consequently increased and variable action potential latencies, which may be computationally undesirable. Tonic activation of GABA_A receptors increases membrane conductance and thus regulates neuronal excitability by shunting inhibition. In addition, tonic increases in membrane conductance decrease the membrane time constant (τ_m), and improve the temporal fidelity of neuronal firing. Here we performed whole-cell current clamp recordings from hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons and found that bath application of 10μM GABA indeed decreases τ_m in these cells. GABA also decreased first spike latency and jitter (standard deviation of the latency) produced by current injection of 2 rheobases (500 ms). However, when larger current injections (3–6 rheobases) were used, GABA produced no significant effect on spike jitter, which was low. Using mathematical modeling we demonstrate that the tonic GABA_A conductance decreases rise time, decay time and half-width of EPSPs in pyramidal neurons. A similar effect was observed on EPSP/IPSP pairs produced by stimulation of Schaffer collaterals: the EPSP part of the response became shorter after application of GABA. Consistent with the current injection data, a significant decrease in spike latency and jitter was obtained in cell attached recordings only at near-threshold stimulation (50% success rate, S₅₀). When stimulation was increased to 2- or 3- times S₅₀, GABA significantly affected neither spike latency nor spike jitter. Our results suggest that a decrease in τ_m associated with elevations in ambient GABA can improve EPSP-spike precision at near-threshold synaptic inputs.