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Gräf T, Ferreira CDN, de Lima GB, de Lima RE, Machado LC, Campos TDL, Schemberger MO, Faoro H, Paiva MHS, Bezerra MF, Nascimento V, Souza V, Nascimento F, Mejía M, Silva D, de Oliveira YS, Gonçalves L, Ramos TCA, de Castro DB, Arcanjo AR, Dantas HAP, Presibella MM, Fernandes SB, Gregianini TS, Paz E Silva KM, Sacchi CT, Cruz ACR, Duarte dos Santos CN, Bispo de Filippis AM, Bello G, Wallau GL, Salvato RS, Naveca F. Multiple introductions and country-wide spread of DENV-2 genotype II (Cosmopolitan) in Brazil. Virus Evol 2023; 9:vead059. [PMID: 38288387 PMCID: PMC10824474 DOI: 10.1093/ve/vead059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2023] [Revised: 08/28/2023] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/31/2024] Open
Abstract
Dengue virus serotype 2, genotype Cosmopolitan (DENV-2-GII), is one of the most widespread DENV strains globally. In the USA, DENV-2 epidemics have been dominated by DENV-2 genotype Asian-American (DENV-2-GIII), and the first cases of DENV-2-GII were only described in 2019, in Peru, and in 2021 in Brazil. To gain new information about the circulation of DENV-2-GII in Brazil, we sequenced 237 DENV-2 confirmed cases sampled between March 2021 and March 2023 and revealed that DENV-2-GII is already present in all geographic regions of Brazil. The phylogeographic analysis inferred that DENV-2-GII was introduced at least four times in Brazil, between May 2020 and August 2022, generating multiple clades that spread throughout the country with different success. Despite multiple introductions of DENV-2-GII, analysis of the country-wide laboratory surveillance data showed that the Brazilian dengue epidemic in 2022 was dominated by DENV-1 in most states. We hypothesize that massive circulation of DENV-2-GIII in previous years in Brazil might have created a population immune barrier against symptomatic homotypic reinfections by DENV-2-GII, leading to sustained cryptic circulation in asymptomatic cases and localized outbreaks of this new genotype. In summary, our study stresses the importance of arboviral genomic surveillance to close monitoring and better understanding the potential impact of DENV-2-GII in the coming years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiago Gräf
- Laboratório de Virologia Molecular, Instituto Carlos Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Curitiba 81350-010, Brazil
| | | | - Gustavo Barbosa de Lima
- Núcleo de Plataformas Tecnológicas (NPT), Instituto Aggeu Magalhães (IAM), FIOCRUZ-Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco 50740-465, Brazil
| | - Raul Emídio de Lima
- Núcleo de Plataformas Tecnológicas (NPT), Instituto Aggeu Magalhães (IAM), FIOCRUZ-Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco 50740-465, Brazil
| | - Lais Ceschini Machado
- Departamento de Entomologia, Instituto Aggeu Magalhães (IAM)-Fundação Oswaldo Cruz-FIOCRUZ, Recife, Pernambuco 50670-420, Brazil
- Núcleo de Bioinformática (NBI), Instituto Aggeu Magalhães (IAM), FIOCRUZ-Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco 50740-465, Brazil
| | - Tulio de Lima Campos
- Núcleo de Bioinformática (NBI), Instituto Aggeu Magalhães (IAM), FIOCRUZ-Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco 50740-465, Brazil
| | - Michelle Orane Schemberger
- Laboratório de Ciências e Tecnologias Aplicadas em Saúde, Instituto Carlos Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Curitiba 81350-010, Brazil
| | - Helisson Faoro
- Laboratório de Ciências e Tecnologias Aplicadas em Saúde, Instituto Carlos Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Curitiba 81350-010, Brazil
| | - Marcelo Henrique Santos Paiva
- Núcleo de Ciências da Vida, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco (UFPE), Centro Acadêmico do Agreste-Rodovia BR-104, km 59-Nova Caruaru, Caruaru 55002-970, Brazil
| | - Matheus Filgueira Bezerra
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto Aggeu Magalhães (IAM), FIOCRUZ-Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco 50740-465, Brazil
| | - Valdinete Nascimento
- Laboratório de Ecologia de Doenças Transmissíveis na Amazônia, Instituto Leônidas e Maria Deane, Fiocruz, Manaus 69057-070, Brazil
| | - Victor Souza
- Laboratório de Ecologia de Doenças Transmissíveis na Amazônia, Instituto Leônidas e Maria Deane, Fiocruz, Manaus 69057-070, Brazil
| | - Fernanda Nascimento
- Laboratório de Ecologia de Doenças Transmissíveis na Amazônia, Instituto Leônidas e Maria Deane, Fiocruz, Manaus 69057-070, Brazil
| | - Matilde Mejía
- Laboratório de Ecologia de Doenças Transmissíveis na Amazônia, Instituto Leônidas e Maria Deane, Fiocruz, Manaus 69057-070, Brazil
| | - Dejanane Silva
- Laboratório de Ecologia de Doenças Transmissíveis na Amazônia, Instituto Leônidas e Maria Deane, Fiocruz, Manaus 69057-070, Brazil
| | - Yasmin Silva de Oliveira
- Laboratório de Ecologia de Doenças Transmissíveis na Amazônia, Instituto Leônidas e Maria Deane, Fiocruz, Manaus 69057-070, Brazil
| | - Luciana Gonçalves
- Laboratório de Ecologia de Doenças Transmissíveis na Amazônia, Instituto Leônidas e Maria Deane, Fiocruz, Manaus 69057-070, Brazil
- Fundação de Vigilância em Saúde do Amazonas—Dra Rosemary Costa Pinto, Manaus, Amazonas 69093-018, Brazil
| | - Tatyana Costa Amorim Ramos
- Fundação de Vigilância em Saúde do Amazonas—Dra Rosemary Costa Pinto, Manaus, Amazonas 69093-018, Brazil
| | - Daniel Barros de Castro
- Fundação de Vigilância em Saúde do Amazonas—Dra Rosemary Costa Pinto, Manaus, Amazonas 69093-018, Brazil
| | - Ana Ruth Arcanjo
- Laboratório Central de Saúde Pública do Amazonas (LACEN-AM), Manaus, Amazonas 69020-040, Brazil
| | | | - Mayra Marinho Presibella
- Laboratório Central de Saúde Pública do Estado do Paraná (LACEN-PR), São José dos Pinhais, Paraná 83060-500, Brazil
| | - Sandra Bianchini Fernandes
- Laboratório Central de Saúde Pública do Estado de Santa Catarina (LACEN-SC), Florianópolis, Santa Catarina 88010-001, Brazil
| | - Tatiana Schaffer Gregianini
- Laboratório Central de Saúde Pública do Rio Grande do Sul (LACEN-RS), Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul 90610-000, Brazil
| | - Keilla Maria Paz E Silva
- Laboratório Central de Saúde Pública de Pernambuco (LACEN-PE), Recife, Pernambuco 50050-210, Brazil
| | | | - Ana Cecília Ribeiro Cruz
- Department of Arbovirology and Hemorrhagic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Health and Environment Surveillance Secretariat, Ministry of Health, Ananindeua, Para 670030-000, Brazil
- Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Pará, Belém, Para 66075-110, Brazil
| | | | - Ana Maria Bispo de Filippis
- Laboratório de Arbovírus e Vírus Hemorrágicos, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-360, Brazil
| | - Gonzalo Bello
- Laboratório de Arbovírus e Vírus Hemorrágicos, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-360, Brazil
| | - Gabriel Luz Wallau
- Departamento de Entomologia, Instituto Aggeu Magalhães (IAM)-Fundação Oswaldo Cruz-FIOCRUZ, Recife, Pernambuco 50670-420, Brazil
- Núcleo de Bioinformática (NBI), Instituto Aggeu Magalhães (IAM), FIOCRUZ-Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco 50740-465, Brazil
- Department of Arbovirology, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, WHO Collaborating Center for Arbovirus and Hemorrhagic Fever Reference and Research, National Reference Center for Tropical Infectious Diseases, Bernhard-Nocht-Straße 74, Hamburg 20359, Germany
| | - Richard Steiner Salvato
- Laboratório Central de Saúde Pública do Rio Grande do Sul (LACEN-RS), Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul 90610-000, Brazil
| | - Felipe Naveca
- Laboratório de Ecologia de Doenças Transmissíveis na Amazônia, Instituto Leônidas e Maria Deane, Fiocruz, Manaus 69057-070, Brazil
- Laboratório de Arbovírus e Vírus Hemorrágicos, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-360, Brazil
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Giovanetti M, Slavov SN, Fonseca V, Wilkinson E, Tegally H, Patané JSL, Viala VL, San JE, Rodrigues ES, Santos EV, Aburjaile F, Xavier J, Fritsch H, Adelino TER, Pereira F, Leal A, de Melo Iani FC, de Carvalho Pereira G, Vazquez C, Mercedes Estigarribia Sanabria G, de Oliveira EC, Demarchi L, Croda J, dos Santos Bezerra R, de Lima LPO, Martins AJ, dos Santos Barros CR, Marqueze EC, de Souza Todao Bernardino J, Moretti DB, Brassaloti RA, de Lello Rocha Campos Cassano R, Mariani PDSC, Kitajima JP, Santos B, Proto-Siqueira R, Cantarelli VV, Tosta S, Nardy VB, de Oliveira da Silva LR, Kelly Astete Gómez M, Lima JG, Ribeiro AA, Guimarães NR, Watanabe LT, Da Silva LB, da Silva Ferreira R, da Penha MPF, Ortega MJ, de la Fuente AG, Villalba S, Torales J, Gamarra ML, Aquino C, Martínez Figueredo GP, Fava WS, Motta-Castro ARC, Venturini J, de Oliveira SMDVL, Gonçalves CCM, do Carmo Debur Rossa M, Becker GN, Presibella MM, Marques NQ, Riediger IN, Raboni S, Coelho GM, Cataneo AHD, Zanluca C, dos Santos CND, Assato PA, da Costa FADS, Poleti MD, Lesbon JCC, Mattos EC, Banho CA, Sacchetto L, Moraes MM, Grotto RMT, Souza-Neto JA, Nogueira ML, Fukumasu H, Coutinho LL, Calado RT, Neto RM, de Filippis AMB, da Cunha RV, Freitas C, Peterka CRL, de Fátima Rangel Fernandes C, de Araújo WN, do Carmo Said RF, Almiron M, de Albuquerque e Melo CFC, Lourenço J, de Oliveira T, Holmes EC, Haddad R, Sampaio SC, Elias MC, Kashima S, de Alcantara LCJ, Covas DT. Genomic epidemiology reveals the impact of national and international restrictions measures on the SARS-CoV-2 epidemic in Brazil. medRxiv 2022:2021.10.07.21264644. [PMID: 35378755 PMCID: PMC8978948 DOI: 10.1101/2021.10.07.21264644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Brazil has experienced some of the highest numbers of COVID-19 cases and deaths globally and from May 2021 made Latin America a pandemic epicenter. Although SARS-CoV-2 established sustained transmission in Brazil early in the pandemic, important gaps remain in our understanding of virus transmission dynamics at the national scale. Here, we describe the genomic epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2 using near-full genomes sampled from 27 Brazilian states and a bordering country - Paraguay. We show that the early stage of the pandemic in Brazil was characterised by the co-circulation of multiple viral lineages, linked to multiple importations predominantly from Europe, and subsequently characterized by large local transmission clusters. As the epidemic progressed under an absence of effective restriction measures, there was a local emergence and onward international spread of Variants of Concern (VOC) and Variants Under Monitoring (VUM), including Gamma (P.1) and Zeta (P.2). In addition, we provide a preliminary genomic overview of the epidemic in Paraguay, showing evidence of importation from Brazil. These data reinforce the usefulness and need for the implementation of widespread genomic surveillance in South America as a toolkit for pandemic monitoring that provides a means to follow the real-time spread of emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants with possible implications for public health and immunization strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Giovanetti
- Laboratório de Flavivírus, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Laboratório de Genética Celular e Molecular, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Svetoslav Nanev Slavov
- University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, Blood Center of Ribeirão Preto, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
- Butantan Institute, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Vagner Fonseca
- Laboratório de Flavivírus, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Coordenação Geral de Laboratórios de Saúde Pública/Secretaria de Vigilância em Saúde, Ministério da Saúde (CGLAB/SVS-MS) Brasília, Distrito Federal, Brazil
- KwaZulu-Natal Research Innovation and Sequencing Platform (KRISP), School of Laboratory Medicine and Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
- Centre for Epidemic Response and Innovation (CERI), School of Data Science and Computational Thinking, Stellenbosch University; Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | - Eduan Wilkinson
- KwaZulu-Natal Research Innovation and Sequencing Platform (KRISP), School of Laboratory Medicine and Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
- Centre for Epidemic Response and Innovation (CERI), School of Data Science and Computational Thinking, Stellenbosch University; Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | - Houriiyah Tegally
- KwaZulu-Natal Research Innovation and Sequencing Platform (KRISP), School of Laboratory Medicine and Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
- Centre for Epidemic Response and Innovation (CERI), School of Data Science and Computational Thinking, Stellenbosch University; Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | | | | | - James Emmanuel San
- KwaZulu-Natal Research Innovation and Sequencing Platform (KRISP), School of Laboratory Medicine and Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
- Centre for Epidemic Response and Innovation (CERI), School of Data Science and Computational Thinking, Stellenbosch University; Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | - Evandra Strazza Rodrigues
- University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, Blood Center of Ribeirão Preto, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Elaine Vieira Santos
- University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, Blood Center of Ribeirão Preto, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Flavia Aburjaile
- Laboratório de Genética Celular e Molecular, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
- Laboratório Central de Saúde Pública do Estado de Minas Gerais, Fundac ão Ezequiel Dias, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Joilson Xavier
- Laboratório de Flavivírus, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Laboratório Central de Saúde Pública do Estado de Minas Gerais, Fundac ão Ezequiel Dias, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Hegger Fritsch
- Laboratório de Flavivírus, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Laboratório Central de Saúde Pública do Estado de Minas Gerais, Fundac ão Ezequiel Dias, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Talita Emile Ribeiro Adelino
- Laboratório de Flavivírus, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Laboratório Central de Saúde Pública do Estado de Minas Gerais, Fundac ão Ezequiel Dias, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Felicidade Pereira
- Laboratorio Central de Saude Publica da Bahia–LACEN-BA, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Arabela Leal
- Laboratorio Central de Saude Publica da Bahia–LACEN-BA, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Felipe Campos de Melo Iani
- Laboratório Central de Saúde Pública do Estado de Minas Gerais, Fundac ão Ezequiel Dias, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Glauco de Carvalho Pereira
- Laboratório Central de Saúde Pública do Estado de Minas Gerais, Fundac ão Ezequiel Dias, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | | | - Gladys Mercedes Estigarribia Sanabria
- Universidad Nacional del Caaguazú, Instituto Regional de Investigación en Salud
- Laboratorio de Biología Molecular, Hospital Regional de Coronel Oviedo
- Ministerio de Salud Pública y Bienestar Social
| | | | - Luiz Demarchi
- Laboratório Central de Saúde Pública do Estado de Mato Grosso do Sul, Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil
| | | | - Rafael dos Santos Bezerra
- University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, Blood Center of Ribeirão Preto, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Vlademir Vicente Cantarelli
- Universidade Federal de Ciências da Saúde de Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Universidade Feevale, Grupo Exame Laboratórios, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Stephane Tosta
- Laboratório de Genética Celular e Molecular, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
- Laboratorio Central de Saude Publica da Bahia–LACEN-BA, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | - Adriana Aparecida Ribeiro
- Laboratório Central de Saúde Pública do Estado de Minas Gerais, Fundac ão Ezequiel Dias, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Natália Rocha Guimarães
- Laboratório Central de Saúde Pública do Estado de Minas Gerais, Fundac ão Ezequiel Dias, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Luiz Takao Watanabe
- Laboratório Central de Saúde Pública do Estado de Mato Grosso, Cuiabá, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Juan Torales
- Laboratorio Central de Salud Pública, Asunción, Paraguay
| | | | | | - Gloria Patricia Martínez Figueredo
- Universidad Nacional del Caaguazú, Instituto Regional de Investigación en Salud
- Laboratorio de Biología Molecular, Hospital Regional de Coronel Oviedo
- Ministerio de Salud Pública y Bienestar Social
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Sonia Raboni
- Hospital de Clínicas da Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, PR
| | | | | | - Camila Zanluca
- Laboratório de Virologia Molecular - Instituto Carlos Chagas/Fiocruz PR, Curitiba, PR
| | | | - Patricia Akemi Assato
- São Paulo State University (UNESP), School of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Bioprocesses and Biotechnology, Botucatu, Brazil
| | - Felipe Allan da Silva da Costa
- São Paulo State University (UNESP), School of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Bioprocesses and Biotechnology, Botucatu, Brazil
| | - Mirele Daiana Poleti
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, School of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of Sao Paulo, Pirassununga, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Jessika Cristina Chagas Lesbon
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, School of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of Sao Paulo, Pirassununga, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Elisangela Chicaroni Mattos
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, School of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of Sao Paulo, Pirassununga, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Cecilia Artico Banho
- Laboratório de Pesquisas em Virologia, Departamento de Doenças Dermatológicas, Infecciosas e Parasitárias, Faculdade de Medicina de São José do Rio Preto
| | - Lívia Sacchetto
- Laboratório de Pesquisas em Virologia, Departamento de Doenças Dermatológicas, Infecciosas e Parasitárias, Faculdade de Medicina de São José do Rio Preto
| | - Marília Mazzi Moraes
- Laboratório de Pesquisas em Virologia, Departamento de Doenças Dermatológicas, Infecciosas e Parasitárias, Faculdade de Medicina de São José do Rio Preto
| | - Rejane Maria Tommasini Grotto
- São Paulo State University (UNESP), School of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Bioprocesses and Biotechnology, Botucatu, Brazil
- Molecular Biology Laboratory, Applied Biotechnology Laboratory, Clinical Hospital of the Botucatu Medical School, Brazil
| | - Jayme A. Souza-Neto
- São Paulo State University (UNESP), School of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Bioprocesses and Biotechnology, Botucatu, Brazil
| | - Maurício Lacerda Nogueira
- Laboratório de Pesquisas em Virologia, Departamento de Doenças Dermatológicas, Infecciosas e Parasitárias, Faculdade de Medicina de São José do Rio Preto
| | - Heidge Fukumasu
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, School of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of Sao Paulo, Pirassununga, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Luiz Lehmann Coutinho
- University of São Paulo, Centro de Genômica Funcional da ESALQ, Piracicaba, SP, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo Tocantins Calado
- University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, Blood Center of Ribeirão Preto, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | | | | | | | - Carla Freitas
- Coordenação Geral de Laboratórios de Saúde Pública/Secretaria de Vigilância em Saúde, Ministério da Saúde (CGLAB/SVS-MS) Brasília, Distrito Federal, Brazil
| | - Cassio Roberto Leonel Peterka
- Coordenação Geral das Arboviroses, Secretaria de Vigilaçncia em Saúde/Ministério da Saúde (CGARB/SVS-MS), Brasília, Distrito Federal, Brazil
| | - Cássia de Fátima Rangel Fernandes
- Departamento de Imunização e Doenças Transmissíveisa/Secretaria de Vigilância em Saúde, Ministério da Saúde, Brasília, Distrito Federal, Brazil
| | | | | | - Maria Almiron
- Organização Pan-Americana da Saúde/Organização Mundial da Saúde, Brasília, Distrito Federal, Brazil
| | | | - José Lourenço
- Department of Zoology, Peter Medawar Building, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Biosystems and Integrative Sciences Institute, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Tulio de Oliveira
- KwaZulu-Natal Research Innovation and Sequencing Platform (KRISP), School of Laboratory Medicine and Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
- Centre for Epidemic Response and Innovation (CERI), School of Data Science and Computational Thinking, Stellenbosch University; Stellenbosch, South Africa
- Centre for the AIDS Programme of Research in South Africa (CAPRISA), Durban, South Africa
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Edward C. Holmes
- Sydney Institute for Infectious Diseases, School of Life and Environmental Sciences and School of Medical Sciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | | | | | | | - Simone Kashima
- University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, Blood Center of Ribeirão Preto, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Luiz Carlos Junior de Alcantara
- Laboratório de Flavivírus, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Laboratório de Genética Celular e Molecular, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Dimas Tadeu Covas
- University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, Blood Center of Ribeirão Preto, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
- Butantan Institute, São Paulo, Brazil
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