Innate Type 2 Response to Aspergillus fumigatus in a Murine Model of Atopic Dermatitis-like Skin Inflammation

BACKGROUND

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic and relapsing inflammatory skin disease mediated by T helper type 2 (Th2) cells in acute phase. Group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) play a role in the initiation of the Th2 response. Although mold exposure is associated with the development of AD, studies on the underlying mechanisms are lacking. This study investigated whether group 2 ILCs are involved in inflammation in AD-like skin induced by Aspergillus fumigatus (Af).

METHODS

We investigated changes of group 2 ILCs population in Af-induced AD-like skin lesions. To induce AD-like skin lesions, Af extracts were applied to the dorsal skin of BALB/c and Rag1^-/- mice five times per week, with repeat exposures at 2-week intervals.

RESULTS

The clinical parameters were higher in the Af-treated group than in the control group. Histologic findings revealed epiderrmal and dermal thickening as well as eosinophil and mast cell infiltration into the skin of Af-treated mice. Populations of group 2 ILCs in the skin were also significantly higher in the Af-treated group. In addition, interleukin-33 mRNA expression was significantly higher in the skin lesions of the Af-treated mice. In the Rag1^-/- mice lacking mature lymphocytes, AD-like skin lesions were still induced by Af and ILCs depletion using an anti-CD90.2 mAb lowered the Af-induced inflammatory response.

CONCLUSIONS

Group 2 ILCs may play a role in a murine model of Af-induced AD-like skin lesions.

Expression of steroidogenic enzymes in human placenta according to the gestational age

Female sex steroid hormones, including estradiol (E2) and progesterone (P4), serve significant physiological roles in pregnancy. In particular, E2 and P4 influence placenta formation, maintain pregnancy and stimulate milk production. These hormones are produced by ovaries, adrenal glands and the placenta, of which the latter is a major endocrine organ during pregnancy. However, the mechanism of hormone production during pregnancy remains unclear. In the present study, the regulation of steroid hormones and steroidogenic enzymes was examined in human placenta according to gestational age. In human placental tissues, expression levels of steroidogenic enzymes were determined with reverse transcription‑quantitative polymerase chain reaction and western blotting. The mRNA and protein expression of CYP17A1, HSD17B3 and CYP19A1, which are associated with the synthesis of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and E2, was elevated at different gestational ages in human placenta. In addition, to evaluate the correlation between serum and placental‑produced hormones, steroid hormone levels, including pregnenolone (PG), DHEA, P4, testosterone (T) and E2, were examined in serum and placenta. Serum and placenta expression of DHEA and E2 increased with gestational age, whereas T and P4 were differently regulated in placenta and serum. To confirm the mechanism of steroidogenesis in vitro, placental BeWo cells were treated with E2 and P4, which are the most important hormones during pregnancy. The mRNA and protein expression of steroidogenic enzymes was significantly altered by E2 in vitro. These results demonstrated that concentration of steroid hormones was differently regulated by steroidogenic enzymes in the placenta depending on the type of the hormones, which may be critical to maintain pregnancy.

Self-injurious behaviours in children and adults with autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

BACKGROUND

Self-injurious behaviours (SIB) are concerning, maladaptive behaviours that commonly occur in people with neurodevelopmental conditions and delays but seem to be particularly prevalent in children and adults with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). There has been increasing research examining the risk markers associated with the presence of SIB in people with ASD. Some of the factors associated with SIB have included cognitive abilities, adaptive functioning deficits and behaviour regulation impairments (e.g. impulsivity and repetitive behaviours). However, many of the findings in the literature are mixed and only explain a small proportion of the variance contributing to SIB. Limitations in the previous literature have centred on lack of availability of large and diverse samples, restricted age ranges and constraints of measurement.

METHOD

This study characterises a clinic-referred sample of children and adults currently presenting with and without SIB using a range of standardised and parent-report measures. The sample includes 144 individuals with ASD between the ages of 2.5 and 60.1 years.

RESULTS

After adjusting for multiple tests, none of the variables maintained statistical significance between the group of individuals with and without SIB, but medium to large effect sizes were noted. These variables include parent-reported early motor and toileting delays and perinatal risk, and current cognitive and social impairment. The remaining variables, including current autism severity levels, early ASD symptomatology, impulsivity, executive functioning impairments, adaptive functioning, mood and anxiety, did not differ between those with and without current engagement in SIB.

CONCLUSIONS

Utilising a diverse clinic-referred sample and standardised diagnostic tools, this study explored retrospective and current correlate risk markers of SIB in individuals with ASD. In addition to impairments in current functioning, specific early developmental delays and perinatal risk factors were preliminarily associated with the presence of SIB in individuals with ASD. Together these findings suggest that a set of specific characteristics may be related to both early risk and concurrent manifestation of SIB. Identifying this set of characteristics in early development may lead to faster identification and better intervention services, but future work utilising longitudinal design and multivariate analysis is warranted.

The expression and activation of sex steroid receptors in the preeclamptic placenta

Estrogen and progesterone are the main pregnancy hormones produced by the placenta. It is well understood that estrogen stimulates angiogenesis in the uterus during the reproductive cycle. Although the estrogen and progesterone signaling pathways are assumed to be associated with placental vascularization and preeclampsia, expression of estrogen receptors (ESRs) and progesterone receptor (PGR) in the placenta have not been well studied. The present study examined the expression patterns of steroid hormone receptors in placentas. Human placenta samples were collected and divided into normal and preeclampsia groups. Results revealed that expression levels of ESR1 were reduced, whereas ESR2 and PGR were elevated in preeclamptic placentas. To generate an in vitro preeclampsia environment, human placenta‑derived BeWo cells were incubated under hypoxic conditions, or treated with catechol‑O‑methyl transferase inhibitor (COMT‑in) or L‑NG‑nitroarginine methyl ester (L‑NAME). Expression levels of ESR1, ESR2 and PGR in hypoxic cells demonstrated similar regulation as those in placentas from women with preeclampsia. Although COMT‑in and L‑NAME did not significantly regulate the expression levels of the receptors, COMT‑in translocated ESR2 and PGR from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, indicating that these receptors were inactivated. These results suggested that ESRs and PGR are associated with symptoms of preeclampsia in the placenta. The expression of ESR1 was reduced in preeclamptic placenta and hypoxic BeWo cells. In addition, the activation of ESR2 and PGR was blocked in placenta cells subjected to COMT‑in treatment. The reduced ESR1 expression and inactivation of ESR2 and PGR proteins may affect the physiological complications of preeclampsia in the placenta.

Regulation of steroid hormones in the placenta and serum of women with preeclampsia

Preeclampsia (PE) is a pregnancy‑specific hypertensive syndrome that results in substantial maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality. The exact cause of PE has not been completely elucidate, although abnormal formation of the placenta has been considered. The placenta connects the developing fetus to the uterine wall, producing a large quantity of steroid hormones to maintain pregnancy. Although steroid hormones, particularly progesterone (P4) and estrogen (E2), in the serum of women with PE have been studied, steroidogenesis in the placenta has not well been established. The present study compared the concentrations of steroid hormones, including pregnenolone (PG), P4, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), testosterone (T) and E2, in the serum and placenta of women with PE. PG, P4, DHEA and E2 concentrations tended to be decreased in PE serum and placentas, and the results were statistically significant for P4 and E2 in the serum. Quantification of genes associated with steroidogenesis in the placenta was performed, and the expression of the P4‑ and E2‑synthesizing enzymes testosterone 17‑β‑dehydrogenase 3 and 3 β‑hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase/δ5 4‑isomerase type 1 was reduced. Notably, aromatase, an enzyme required for the production of E2, was upregulated in the PE placenta, suggesting that steroidogenic enzymes may be dynamically regulated and may affect the symptoms of PE. In conclusion, the results of the present study suggested that the levels of steroid hormones, including P4 and E2, in the serum and placenta of women with PE are downregulated, which may be mediated by the regulation of steroidogenic enzyme expression in the PE placenta.

Expression of reproductive hormone receptors and contraction‑associated genes in porcine uterus during the estrous cycle

Contraction of uterus tissue frequently occurs throughout the estrous cycle and is regulated by several endogenous factors, including estradiol, progesterone, luteinizing hormone, follicle‑stimulating hormone, oxytocin (OXT) and contraction‑associated proteins (CAPs). Contraction activity of uterus tissue according to the estrous cycle is important, due to the fact that it is directly associated with balanced implantation and stable pregnancy. However, few studies have examined the mechanism of uterus contraction activity in a porcine model. In the current study, porcine uterus tissue was separated into the follicular and luteal phases by histological analysis. To investigate regulation of contraction‑associated factors according to the estrous cycle, mRNA and protein expression levels of reproductive hormonal receptors, including estrogen receptors, progesterone receptor and luteinizing hormone/choriogonadotropin receptor in addition to CAPs including OXT, OXT receptor (OXTR), hydroxyprostaglandin dehydrogenase 15‑(NAD) and gap junction α‑1 protein, were examined in the porcine uterus according to the follicular and luteal phases. For the results, hormonal receptors and CAPs were dynamically regulated depending on the estrous cycle. In conclusion, genes associated with uterine contraction and its regulatory hormonal receptors in the porcine uterus were differently regulated in the follicular and luteal phases, suggesting that these genes are critically involved in the remodeling and contraction of uterine tissue and may be required to modulate the physiological status of the uterus.

Interaction of steroid receptor coactivators and estrogen receptors in the human placenta

Female sex steroid hormones such as estrogen and progesterone have a pivotal role in maintaining pregnancy in human and animals. Especially, estrogen exerts specific effects on the cardiovascular system and angiogenesis, and thus affects significantly on placentation. Although the functions of estrogen have been emphasized during pregnancy, their signaling pathways in the placenta have not been fully understood. In this study, estrogen signaling was evaluated according to gestational age. Human placenta samples were collected and divided into early preterm (n=10), late preterm (n=18), and term (n=20) groups. First, serum estrogen concentration and corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) mRNA expression, which is known as gestation clock gene, were increased following gestation age in our experimental condition, as we expected. Next, the expression of estrogen receptors (ERs) and steroid receptor coactivators (SRCs) in the placenta was evaluated. ERα (ESR1) and ERβ (ESR2) were expressed highly at term period compared with early preterm. In addition, SRC family including SRC1, SRC2, and SRC3 was expressed in the human placenta, and the levels of SRC1, SRC2, and SRC3 were increased in the placenta at the late stage of gestation. The interaction of ERs with SRCs was also examined, which was significantly enhanced at term period. In the immunostaining results, it was indicated that ERs and SRCs were all dominantly expressed in syncytiotrophoblast cells. These results suggested that SRC1, SRC2, and SRC3 were expressed and interact with ERs highly at the late stage of gestation, and may amplify the signaling of estrogen in the placenta to maintain pregnancy.

The adverse effect of 4-tert-octylphenol on fat metabolism in pregnant rats via regulation of lipogenic proteins

Alkylphenols such as 4-tert-octylphenol (OP), nonylphenol, and bisphenol A are classified as endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs). Digestion and metabolism of food are controlled by many endocrine factors, including insulin, glucagon, and estrogen. These factors are differentially regulated during pregnancy. The alteration of nutritional intake and fat metabolism may affect the maintenance of pregnancy and supplementation of nutrients to the fetus, and therefore can cause severe metabolic diseases such as ketosis, marasmus and diabetes mellitus in pregnant individuals. In this study, we examined the effects of OP on fat metabolism in pregnant rats. Ethinyl estradiol (EE) was also administered as an estrogenic positive control. In our results, rats treated with OP showed significantly reduced body weights compared to the control group. In addition, histological analysis showed that the amount of fat deposited in adipocytes was reduced by OP treatment. To study the mechanism of action of OP in fat metabolism, we examined the expression levels of fat metabolism-associated genes in rat adipose tissue and liver by real-time PCR. OP and EE negatively regulated the expression of lipogenic enzymes, including FAS (fatty acid synthase), ACC-1 (acetyl-CoA carboxylase-1), and SCD-1 (stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1). The levels of lipogenic enzyme-associated transcription factors such as C/EBP-α (CAAT enhancer binding protein alpha) and SREBP-1c (sterol regulatory element binding protein-1c) were also reduced in both liver and adipose tissue. In summary, these findings suggest that OP has adverse effects on fat metabolism in pregnant rats and inhibits fat deposition via regulating lipogenic genes in the liver and adipose tissue. The altered fat metabolism by OP may affect the nutrition balance during pregnancy and can cause metabolism-related diseases.

Synthesis of poly(methyl urethane) acrylate oligomer using 2-isocyanatoethyl methacrylate for UV curable coating

The poly(methyl urethane) acrylate oligomer was obtained by the reaction of methyl acrylate oligomer and 2-isocyanatoethyl methacrylate. Synthesis of poly(methyl urethane) acrylate oligomer was done with 2-mercaptoethanol (2-MEOH), methyl acrylate, 2,2'-azobisisobutyronitrile (AIBN, initiator) and dibutyltin dilaurate as a catalyst. Then 2-MEOH was used for functional chain transfer agent. The structure and property of the synthesized oligomers were characterized by FT-IR, FT-NMR, rheometer, and DSC. In this study, by synthetic method including the addition of 2-isocyanatoethyl methacrylate, thermal behavior of synthesized material was improved more than that reported in the previous study. Poly(methyl urethane) oligomer can be used for UV curable coatings, inks and adhesives. UV curable coating have high resistance against weather, ozone, aging, frictional wear, and heat. Besides they can absorb the shock and resist rust according to the thickness of film. It is used as an adhesive, paint, optical fiber coating agent, and waterproof agent because of these advantages at the present time.