Inverse pattern of GABAergic system impairment in the external versus internal globus pallidus in male heroin addicts

Opioid addiction is a global problem that has been exacerbated in the USA and Europe by the COVID-19 pandemic. The globus pallidus (GP) plays a prominent neurobiological role in the regulation of behaviour as an output station of the striato-pallidal system. GABAergic large projection neurons are the main neuronal type in the external (EGP) and internal (IGP) parts of the GP, where addiction-specific molecular and functional abnormalities occur. In these neurons, glutamate decarboxylase (GAD) with isoforms GAD 65 and 67 is a key enzyme in GABA synthesis, and experimental studies suggest GAD dysregulation in the GP of heroin addicts. Our study, which was performed on paraffin-embedded brains from the Magdeburg Brain Bank, aimed to investigate abnormalities in the GABAergic function of large GP neurons by densitometric evaluation of their GAD 65/67-immunostained thick dendrites. The study revealed a bilaterally decreased fibres density in the EGP paralleled by the increase in the IGP in 11 male heroin addicts versus 11 healthy controls (significant U-test P values). The analysis of confounding variables found no interference of age, brain volume, and duration of formalin fixation with the results. Our findings suggest a dysregulation of GABAergic activity in the GP of heroin addicts, which is consistent with experimental data from animal models and plays potentially a role in the disturbed function of basal ganglia circuit in opioid addiction.

The left-lateralisation of citrate synthase activity in the anterior cingulate cortex of male violent suicide victims

The anterior cingulate cortex (AC) as a part of prefrontal cortex plays a crucial role in behavioural regulation, which is profoundly disturbed in suicide. Citrate synthase (CS) is a key enzyme of tricarboxylic acid cycle fundamental for brain energetics and neurotransmitter synthesis, which are deteriorated in suicidal behaviour. However, CS activity has not been yet studied in brain structures of suicide victims. CS activity assay was performed bilaterally on frozen samples of the rostral part of the AC of 24 violent suicide completers (21 males and 3 females) with unknown psychiatric diagnosis and 24 non-suicidal controls (20 males and 4 females). Compared to controls, suicide victims revealed decreased CS activity in the right AC, however, insignificant. Further statistical analysis of laterality index revealed the left-lateralisation of CS activity in the AC in male suicides compared to male controls (U-test P = 0.0003, corrected for multiple comparisons). The results were not confounded by postmortem interval, blood alcohol concentration, age, and brain weight. Our findings suggest that disturbed CS activity in the AC plays a role in suicide pathogenesis and correspond with our previous morphological and molecular studies of prefrontal regions in suicide.

Homicide mechanisms, weapon types and causes of death in the autopsy material of the Department of Forensic Medicine Medical University of Gdańsk Poland in the years 2010-2019

The study objective was the analysis of homicides based on reports of 107 medicolegal autopsies of victims, which were carried out in 2010-2019 at the Department of Forensic Medicine of the Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland. The study focused on the analysis of homicide mechanisms, on the weapon type, injuries characteristics, and both pathomechanisms and causes of death. Alcohol and illicit drugs abuse, which is a predisposing factor, was also assessed. In the analysed cohort, 70.1% were males and 29.9% females. The most frequently used weapon was a blunt instrument (accounting for 47.7% of homicides), while the least common was a firearm (accounting for 4.7% of homicides). There were significant differences in homicide mechanisms related to victims' gender. In males, blunt or sharp instruments predominated, while in females violent suffocation and chop injuries were more frequent. Fatal head injuries and their consequences predominated in the pathomechanisms of death (32.7% of cases). It was shown that the highest blood alcohol concentration (BAC) was found in homicides due to violent strangulation and sharp instrument use, while the lowest BAC was found in gunshot victims. Toxicological tests were performed in 18 cases and in 7 cases showed positive results for illicit drugs. The analysis of various elements involved in homicide may contribute to a conceptual framework for preventive measures aiming at the reduction of homicides number.

Long-Term Stability of Benzodiazepines and Z-Hypnotic Drugs in Blood Samples Stored at Varying Temperatures

Benzodiazepines (BZDs) and Z-drugs are among the most commonly prescribed pharmaceuticals in the world and are considered standard care for various mental illnesses and for the treatment of sleeping and anxiety disorders, alcohol withdrawal, muscle spasms and epilepsy. Some BZDs are not allowed as pharmaceuticals in many countries, and they are used as designer benzodiazepines (DBZDs). All these compounds are typically screened in routine toxicological analyses for forensic purposes. Knowledge of time-dependent decreases in drug concentrations during storage or transport of samples is of considerable significance and allows forensic toxicologists to achieve reliable data, proper interpretation and high-quality results. The aim of this study was to evaluate changes in the amounts of selected BZDs, DBZDs and Z-drugs in blood samples stored at various temperatures. The study involved BZDs (19), DBZDs (3) and Z-drugs (2) spiked into blank blood. Subsequently, the blood samples were stored at various temperatures (room temperature, 4°C, -20°C and -80°C) for up to 6 months. Analyses were performed at 1- to 2-week intervals using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The stability of compounds was evaluated under four temperature conditions over a 6-month period. Some BZDs were stable at all temperatures tested (e.g., diazepam, oxazepam, nordazepam and prazepam) with a degradation rate of only 0-10%. The highest instability was observed for analyte samples kept at room temperature, and the losses in content for some compounds, e.g., lorazepam and chlordiazepoxide, were almost 100%. For other compounds, the stability was clearly different at each tested temperature. To the best of our knowledge, this is one of the first such comprehensive study of the long-term stability of BZDs covering a wide range of different storage temperatures.

Epidemiology of suicide in the Tri-City metropolitan area in Poland in 2010-2019

The paper, which is a continuation of our previous epidemiological studies on the phenomenon of suicide in the Tri-City metropolitan area, presents the results of statistical analyses of suicides in the autopsy material of the Department of Forensic Medicine of the Medical University of Gdańsk in the years 2010-2019. The purpose of the study was to analyse in detail demographic data of suicides (age, sex, place of death), as well as to assess suicide methods and the impact of alcohol on suicides in the study area. During the 10-year study period, 8495 autopsies were performed, of which 1261 were suicides (14.8%). Statistical analyses were conducted using the statistical data analysis software system STATISTICA, version 13 (StatSoft, Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA). The results of the study indicate a continuing downward trend in the number of suicides since the beginning of the 21th century, with the number of suicides in rural areas increasing over the same period. In the analysed cohort, suicides were committed in particular by middle-aged men and the number of suicides among older people (65 +) increased at the same time. The increase in suicide occurred in late autumn and early spring. The most common method of suicide was hanging. There was a high percentage of inebriated victims (45%), and a comparison of the present studies with previous ones indicates the increasing impact of alcohol on suicide.

Comparative study of the percutaneous permeation and bioaccumulation of the cyclic siloxane using frozen-thawed and nonfrozen ex vivo human skin

Literature shows contradictory information regarding the effect of freezing the excise skin ex vivo on the diffusion of substances into the skin. Few studies indicate that storing the human or animal skin in a frozen state decreases the barrier properties after thawing. Therefore, to understand the properties of frozen skin, we evaluated the effect of storage of ex vivo human skin (2 weeks at -20 °C) on the penetration of stratum corneum and permeation into deeper skin layers (epidermis, and dermis) as well as to the receptor fluid by octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane (D4) a representative test compound of cyclic siloxanes. The main research were preceded by checking the integrity of nonfrozen ex vivo human skin in comparison to the frozen-thawed one by using the Electrical Resistance technique (ER) and the fluorescence microscopy. Samples collected in the skin absorption experiment were analyzed by gas chromatography equipped with a flame ionization detector (GC-FID). The results of this study demonstrated that freezing of excised ex vivo human skin at -20 °C for up to 14 days does not alter the permeability of D4 in a statistically significant manner. Thus, our results confirmed the validity of using skin storage conditions for testing the penetration and permeation of xenobiotics recommended by the OECD, EMA, and WHO guidelines.

Ribosomal DNA transcription is increased in the left nucleus accumbens of heroin-dependent males

Opioid addiction is a worldwide problem accentuated in the USA and European countries by the COVID-19 pandemic. The nucleus accumbens (NAc) plays an outstanding neurobiological role in opioid addiction as a part of the striatum and key component of brain reward system. The striatal GABAergic medium spiny projection neurons (MSNs) are the main neuronal type in the NAc where addiction-specific synaptic plasticity occurs. The activity of ribosomal DNA (rDNA) transcription is crucial for neural plasticity and molecular studies suggest its increase in the NAc of heroin addicts. Silver-stained argyrophilic nucleolar organizer region (AgNOR) areas visualised in neuronal nuclei in paraffin-embedded brain sections are reliable morphological estimators of rDNA transcription and thus surrogate markers for the activity of brain regions. Our study revealed increased AgNOR areas in MSNs of the left NAc in 11 heroin addicts versus 11 healthy controls from the Magdeburg Brain Bank (U-test P = 0.007). No differences were observed in another investigated part of the striatum, namely the head of caudate nucleus, which is located closely to the NAc. The results were not confounded by significant differences in the age, brain volume and time of formalin fixation existing between compared groups. Our findings suggest an increased NAc activity in heroin addicts, which is consistent with human and animal experimental data.

The Application of Metabolomics in Forensic Science with Focus on Forensic Toxicology and Time-of-Death Estimation

Recently, the diagnostic methods used by scientists in forensic examinations have enormously expanded. Metabolomics provides an important contribution to analytical method development. The main purpose of this review was to investigate and summarize the most recent applications of metabolomics in forensic science. The primary research method was an extensive review of available international literature in PubMed. The keywords “forensic” and “metabolomics” were used as search criteria for the PubMed database scan. Most authors emphasized the analysis of different biological sample types using chromatography methods. The presented review is a summary of recently published implementations of metabolomics in forensic science and types of biological material used and techniques applied. Possible opportunities for valuable metabolomics’ applications are discussed to emphasize the essential necessities resulting in numerous nontargeted metabolomics’ assays.

Fatal N-Ethylhexedrone Intoxication

N-Ethylhexedrone [2-(ethyloamino)-1-phenylhexan-1-one; α-ethylaminohexanophenone (NEH)] is one of the most recent synthetic cathinones that appeared on the illegal market in late 2015. The majority of information concerning the model of consumption of NEH and its impact on the body originates only from self-reports from gray literature websites and drug forums. There are only limited data associated with the concentrations of NEH in blood samples available in the literature. This article presents a case of fatal NEH intoxication and a method for the determination of this substance in whole blood. A 21-year-old man without any diagnosed diseases was admitted to the hospital due to disorientation, aggression and finally loss of consciousness. Hyperthermia (>41°C), tachycardia (>160 beats per minute), tachypnea (20 breaths per minute), blood pressure (110/60 mmHg) and acute kidney failure were diagnosed. After a few hours of hospitalization, the patient died. A plastic bag with a white powder was found in his underwear. Analysis of the powder by another laboratory revealed cocaine hydrochloride; however, no cocaine or its metabolites were found in the biological material upon testing in our laboratory. Therefore, re-analysis of the powder was performed, and NEH was identified. Liquid–liquid extraction followed by liquid chromatography-triple quadrupole-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis were used for the determination of NEH in blood. The validation parameters were as follows: calibration range 1–250 ng/mL, accuracy 106.5–109.9%, precision 3.5–6.3%, recovery 90.1–96.9%, limit of detection 0.07 ng/mL and limit of quantification 1 ng/mL. NEH was quantified in the blood at a concentration of 145 ng/mL. Additionally, amphetamine at low concentrations and 11-nor-9-karboksy-Δ9-tetrahydrokannabinol (THC-COOH) were detected.

Our study provided information on the possible lethal concentration and toxidrome that clinicians can observe for NEH-intoxicated patients and can be helpful during the preparation of toxicology analysis reports for a court of law for proper data interpretation.

Reduced ribosomal DNA transcription in the prefrontal cortex of suicide victims: consistence of new molecular RT-qPCR findings with previous morphometric data from AgNOR-stained pyramidal neurons

Prefrontal cortical regions play a key role in behavioural regulation, which is profoundly disturbed in suicide. The study was carried out on frozen cortical samples from the anterior cingulate cortex (dorsal and ventral parts, ACd and ACv), the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), and the dorsolateral cortex (DLC) obtained from 20 suicide completers (predominantly violent) with unknown psychiatric diagnosis and 21 non-suicidal controls. The relative level of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) as a marker of the transcriptional activity of ribosomal DNA (rDNA) was evaluated bilaterally in prefrontal regions mentioned above (i.e. in eight regions of interest, ROIs) by reverse transcription and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). The overall statistical analysis revealed a decrease in rDNA activity in suicide victims versus controls, particularly in male subjects. Further ROI-specific post hoc analyses revealed a significant decrease in this activity in suicides compared to non-suicides in five ROIs. This effect was accentuated in the ACv, where it was observed bilaterally. Our findings suggest that decreased rDNA transcription in the prefrontal cortex plays an important role in suicide pathogenesis and corresponds with our previous morphometric analyses of AgNOR-stained neurons.

Fatal haemorrhage from an aortoesophageal fistula secondary to button battery ingestion in a 15-month-old child. Case report and literature review

Small children put various objects into their mouths, which is one of their ways of exploring the surrounding world. Apart from toy parts, e.g. Lego® bricks or magnetic spheres, such objects include coins, small stones, as well as batteries used for different electric devices. Such batteries, especially the flat, round button type, may be ingested and become impacted in one of the physiological narrowing sites of the oesophagus, leading to serious complications. The case of a 15-month-old child is presented, who died due to a massive gastrointestinal haemorrhage from an aortoesophageal fistula that developed at the site of a pressure ulcer caused by an impacted button battery. The presented case shows that ingestion of even a small battery may lead to death. The asymptomatic course of the battery ingestion significantly hinders both the assessment of circumstances and the time of the battery ingestion. Sudden death may result from a massive haemorrhage from a pressure-induced injury to a big blood vessel.

Eye temperature measured after death in human bodies as an alternative method of time of death estimation in the early post mortem period. A successive study on new series of cases with exactly known time of death

The paper presents a continuation of the studies on time of death (TOD) estimation based on post-mortem temperature measurements in the human eyeball. In the current study, single (in 20 patients) or double (within a 1-hour interval in 10 patients) eyeball and rectal temperature measurements were taken in patients who died in the University Hospital Intensive Therapy Unit. The actual TOD in each patient was exactly known and the body temperature was recorded shortly after (between 50 min and 3 h 30 min). The temperature was measured using pin probes connected to a high precision electronic thermometer. The measured eye temperatures ranged from 27.4 to 33.7°C. The ambient temperature in all cases was stable (22 °C), which corresponded to the usual room temperature. Post mortem interval (PMI) was calculated using a formula based on Newton's law of cooling, previously successfully applied in comprehensive studies on pigs and recent studies on human bodies. Thanks to knowledge of the exact TOD and the stable ambient temperature, the current study on 30 new cases allowed the method to be improved by adjusting the mean value of the cooling constant and the initial eye temperature in comparison to recent studies.

Determination of tocopherols and tocotrienols in human breast adipose tissue with the use of high performance liquid chromatography-fluorescence detection

Tocopherols and tocotrienols have been extensively studied owing to their anticancer potential, especially against breast cancer. Therefore, the aim of this study was to quantitatively determine tocochromanols in human breast adipose tissue with the use of HPLC-FLD. The sample preparation procedure included homogenization and solvent extraction with isopropanol-ethanol-0.1% formic acid mixture prior to solid-phase extraction. After implementation of central composite design, satisfactory separation of all eight target compounds was achieved within 10.5 min. Chromatographic runs were carried out with the use of a naphthylethyl chromatographic column with methanol-water mixture (89:11, v/v) as the mobile phase. Fluorescence detection of tocochromanols was performed with excitation and emission wavelengths 298 and 330 nm, respectively. The method was validated in terms of linearity, carryover, recovery, precision, accuracy and stability. Extraction yield was also determined for accurate evaluation of vitamin E content in human breast adipose tissue samples. Finally, concentrations of particular tocochromanols compounds were assessed in human breast adipose tissue samples obtained from 99 patients, including women with breast cancer, healthy volunteers and deceased women who had died as a result of accidents. The raw data was transformed according to the newly developed equation for accurate estimation of the concentrations of tocochromanols in breast adipose tissue samples. Results obtained in the study indicated that the proposed analytical assay could be useful in breast cancer research.

Difficulties in interpretation when assessing prolonged and subacute exposure to the toxic effects of chlorine

The purpose of this study was a toxicological interpretation of exposure to chlorine with unusual course. Medical, clinical and court records, as well as reviews of the literature, served as the basis for this interpretation. The first case of poisoning concerns a 52-year-old man who for a short time (probably several hours), during the industrial cleaning of facilities with sodium hypochlorite, was exposed to chlorine in a presumed high concentration. The man was obese and suffered from hypertension and moderate atherosclerosis, and therefore could be more susceptible to the toxic effects of chlorine. After exposure no pulmonary edema or symptoms typical for acute respiratory distress syndrome were present. The second case concerns the chronic poisoning of a 56-year-old man who worked for eight years, 8 h a day, 5 days a week, in a room which was next to a chlorination room. In this chamber technical sodium hypochlorite was stored and dosed. In both cases, determining a cause and effect relationship between exposure to toxic and allergic agents in the form of active chlorine, and the onset of symptoms may be difficult. The findings described above in the first and second case are particularly important in cases of compensation claims and may have a completely different etiology than previously described in medical literature.

Identification of novel psychoactive substances 25B-NBOMe and 4-CMC in biological material using HPLC-Q-TOF-MS and their quantification in blood using UPLC-MS/MS in case of severe intoxications

This paper describes cases of poisoning caused by new psychoactive substances such as: 25B-NBOMe (2-(4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenyl)-N-[(2-methoxyphenyl)methyl]ethanamine) and 4-CMC (1-(4-chlorophenyl)-2-(methylamino)-1-propanone). The analytical procedure includes rapid and selective method for the extraction and determination of 4-CMC and 25B-NBOMe in blood samples using UPLC-MS/MS technique. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report, that involves a fully validated method for quantification of new-designer drug - 4-CMC in postmortem blood samples. The biological material was also analyzed with the use of routine analytical methods: immunochemical techniques, gas chromatography with flame ionization detection and gas chromatography with electron impact mass spectrometry. The results of real samples analyses correspond to possible toxicological effects: death resulting from 25B-NBOMe - mediated hallucinations (661ng/mL of 25B-NBOMe and 0.887ng/mL of 4-CMC), fatal overdose of 25B-NBOMe and 4-CMC (66.5ng/mL of 25B-NBOMe and 2.14ng/mL of 4-CMC) and non-fatal intoxication of these drugs (38.4ng/mL of 25B NBOMe and 0.181ng/mL of 4-CMC). Additionally, O-demethylathed O, O-bis-demethylathed and glucuronidated metabolites of 25B-NBOMe in biological specimens were detected.

Decreased ribosomal DNA transcription in dorsal raphe nucleus neurons differentiates between suicidal and non-suicidal death

An involvement of the central serotonergic system has been implicated in the pathogenesis of suicide. The dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) is the main source of serotonergic innervation of forebrain limbic structures disturbed in suicidal behaviour. The study was carried out on paraffin-embedded brainstem blocks containing the DRN obtained from 27 suicide completers (predominantly violent) with unknown psychiatric diagnosis and 30 non-suicidal controls. The transcriptional activity of ribosomal DNA (rDNA) in DRN neurons as a surrogate marker of protein biosynthesis was evaluated by the AgNOR silver staining method. Significant decreases in AgNOR parameters suggestive of attenuated rDNA activity were found in the cumulative analysis of all DRN subnuclei in suicide victims versus controls (U test P values < 0.00001). Our findings suggest that the decreased activity of rDNA transcription in DRN neurons plays an important role in suicide pathogenesis. The method accuracy represented by the area under receiver operating characteristic curve (>80 %) suggests a diagnostic value of the observed effect. However, the possible application of the method in forensic differentiation diagnostics between suicidal and non-suicidal death needs further research.

Calretinin and parvalbumin in schizophrenia and affective disorders: a mini-review, a perspective on the evolutionary role of calretinin in schizophrenia, and a preliminary post-mortem study of calretinin in the septal nuclei

OBJECTIVE

The septal nuclei are important limbic regions that are involved in emotional behavior and connect to various brain regions such as the habenular complex. Both the septal nuclei and the habenular complex are involved in the pathology of schizophrenia and affective disorders.

METHODS

We characterized the number and density of calretinin-immunoreactive neurons in the lateral, medial, and dorsal subregions of the septal nuclei in three groups of subjects: healthy control subjects (N = 6), patients with schizophrenia (N = 10), and patients with affective disorders (N = 6).

RESULTS

Our mini-review of the combined role of calretinin and parvalbumin in schizophrenia and affective disorders summarizes 23 studies. We did not observe significant differences in the numbers of calretinin-immunoreactive neurons or neuronal densities in the lateral, medial, and dorsal septal nuclei of patients with schizophrenia or patients with affective disorders compared to healthy control subjects.

CONCLUSIONS

Most post-mortem investigations of patients with schizophrenia have indicated significant abnormalities of parvalbumin-immunoreactive neurons in various brain regions including the hippocampus, the anterior cingulate cortex, and the prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia. This study also provides an explanation from an evolutionary perspective for why calretinin is affected in schizophrenia.

Direct penetrating and indirect neck trauma as a cause of internal carotid artery thrombosis and secondary ischemic stroke

The following manuscript presents two cases of ischemic stroke secondary to traumatic internal carotid artery thrombosis with concomitant middle cerebral artery thrombosis occurring very rarely in the medico-legal practice. Penetrating neck trauma due to an occupational accident and multiple head and neck trauma secondary to battery were described. The autopsy and histopathological examination as well as the analysis of available medical records, including radiological examinations, and records of investigation indicated the sustained trauma to be the cause of the thrombosis.

Complex suicide by self-stabbing with subsequent drowning in the sea

The paper presents a unique case of a complex suicide committed by a young man, mostly probably triggered by a disappointment in love. The uniqueness of the suicide lies in the fact that the victim inflicted several deep stab wounds on himself, in the chest and abdomen, while standing partly submerged in the sea and, having done so, he dropped and disappeared in the water. The postmortem examination showed, apart from deep wounds in the trunk, characteristics of drowning that manifested itself in the form of aqueous emphysema of the lungs. Suicide was clearly determined on the basis of the circumstances preceding death, the location, and arrangement of the trunk wounds and the testimony given by a witness of the incident. The circumstances preceding the suicidal act clearly suggest an underlying undiagnosed mental disorder.

Lightning strike as probable cause of death and determining identity based on the examination of skeletal remains

In this article, a case of examining an incomplete human skeleton found in a forest is presented. Based on the assessment of posttraumatic lesions in the skull bones, the cause of death of a man who had died 14 years prior to the examination was determined with high probability to be due to a lightning strike. Moreover, the rare pathological lesions within the skeleton, such as a healed fracture of the humerus and rheumatoid malformations within the hand, in reference to preserved medical records, have also allowed to identify the deceased. Most noteworthy points in this case are, however, initially difficult to comprehend, posttraumatic lesions within the bones of the skull such as carbonization and fracture of the vertex. Their origin can be explained by a lightning strike as the most probable cause of death. Thus, the presented case demonstrates probable cause of death and identity can be established many years after death, based on skeletal remains.

[A case of fatal lightning stroke at an unusual site--the city center]

A case of a fatal lighting stroke involving a young man staying in a storm near the center of a big city is presented. The atypical character of this case lies in the fact that the lightning stroke usually occurs in open areas (mountains, fields, meadows), or involves people trying to find shelter from the storm under a tree or an isolated object in an open area. In the described case, a contributory factor to the lightning stroke was the fact that during the storm, the man was most probably standing on metal heating pipes, built in the 70's and 80's, long stretches of which were erected high above the ground. Metal used in the construction of the pipes most probably attracted lightning and generated the current which electrocuted the man standing on their surface.

[An attempt at estimating the time of death based on limited data from death scene]

The paper presents a case of murder, in which an important fact for the investigation was determination of the time of death. The problem was lack of relevant data from the death scene resulting from delayed and mismanaged external body examination, and particularly lack of body temperature measurement. Due to the gravity of the case, despite the lack of body temperature record, an attempt at estimating the time interval in which death occurred was undertaken. The time interval of 10 hours during which death most probably occurred was determined based on the stage of development of postmortem lividity, rigor mortis and also depositions of witnesses. If, however, body temperature at the death scene had been recorded, which should have been a routine action, the accuracy of the time of death estimation would most probably have been much higher.

Olfactory and tissue markers of fear in mammals including humans

Pheromones are a mysterious world of chemical signals involved in conspecific communication. They play a number of key functions important for preservation of life of individual organisms, for their defence, survival of offspring and preservation of species. The best-known groups of pheromones include: trail pheromones, territorial pheromones, sex pheromones, aggregation pheromones, dispersion pheromones, repellent pheromones, social pheromones and alarm pheromones. Alarm pheromones are pheromones that are emitted by animals in threatening situations and inform members of the same species of danger. The identified alarm pheromones are synthesised by insects and aquatic organisms. Also humans are able to emit and perceive pheromones. Although alarm pheromones have not been isolated and identified in man so far, there is presumably evidence for their presence in humans. Pinpointing human alarm pheromones, determinants of experienced stress and inductors of provoked fear could have widespread consequences. Their identification could also be of significant importance for the practical utilisation of results by institutions responsible for safety and defence as well as law enforcement/crime detection and antiterrorist activities.

[Rare case of death due to suffocation following upper airways closure by a mucolaryngocoele]

The report presents a rare case of suffocation due to upper airways obstruction by a large mucolaryngocoele. The mechanism of death by suffocation was confirmed by histopathological examination of the lungs which showed acute lungs ectasy. Location of the laryngocoele hindered standard intubation by emergency doctor. Maybe the victim's life could have been saved by immediate conio- or tracheotomy, which in this case was not performed.

Multiple severe stab wounds to chest with cuts to the ribs. Suicide or homicide?

This paper presents the case of a 36-year-old man found dead in a forest near his home with multiple stab wounds on the chest and abdomen, while the chest wounds penetrated deep into the left pleural cavity and the lung parenchyma, completely cutting through the bone sections of four ribs along the channels of the wounds. In addition, a kitchen knife dug into the ground was found in the immediate vicinity of the corpse. The deceased was wearing a T-shirt with numerous clearly visible holes in places corresponding to the wounds and quite a large tear at the bottom. The post-mortem revealed 19 distinct wounds of the chest as well as a dozen or so superficial marks of cuts or pricks with a pointed tool on the torso. The findings of the police investigation suggested that shortly before death the man was in a bad mood and he had been telling his friends to prepare for his funeral, which was supposed to point to suicidal tendencies. Could, however, such numerous and heavy bodily injuries have been self-inflicted and would such a wounded person still be able to dig a knife into hard forest bed? If yes, in this case we are most probably dealing with aggressive self-destruction, a type of behavior sometimes observed in people suffering from serious mental disorders.

Multiple self-inflicted stab wounds to neck, chest and abdomen as a unique manner of suicide

This is a case report of a 30-year-old man found dead in his flat lying on the floor with multiple stab wounds over the body, surrounded by an extensive volume of blood. Examination of the scene of death showed a secure flat, locked from inside. A blood-stained knife was present close to the body and two unstained notes left on the sofa at the locus. A small plastic bag containing white powder (which following toxicological examinations appeared to be cocaine) and an almost full bottle of beer were present on a table. Autopsy revealed more than 40 stab wounds to neck, chest, and abdomen arranged in isolated groups within which the wounds showed similar directions and had a transverse orientation. Together with hesitation marks located on the neck and wrists these characteristics allowed to interpret this case as a suicide.

Estimation of the time of death based on the assessment of post mortem processes with emphasis on body cooling

This paper presents a review of the literature referring to the estimation of the time of death (TOD) over nearly 200 years. Emphasis is put on the development of the methods taking advantage of the decrease in body temperature after death, measured in various body sites. The review is complemented by the first authors' own experiences on TOD estimation based on post mortem temperature measurements in the eyeball and orbit soft tissues.

[Estimation of the time of death based on the measurements of the eye temperature in comparison with other body sites]

A systematic two-stage study was conducted in pigs to verify the models of postmortem body temperature decrease currently employed in forensic medicine. During the investigations, temperature recordings were performed in four body sites (eyeballs, orbit soft tissues, muscles and rectums). The results of the study support the possible use of the eyeball and also the orbit soft tissues as temperature measuring sites at the early phase after death; they have narrowed the significance of rectum temperature measurements to the late stage of postmortem body temperature decrease, shown insignificant correlations between the body weight and the temperature decrease rate constant and illustrated the functional increase of the time of death estimation error as the body cools, expressed in the distinct tendency to overestimate the calculated time of death as compared to the actual one. In the second stage of the experiment, a lack of a plateau phase was demonstrated, at least from 30 min post mortem. It was also found that in the very early post mortem period, the kinetics of cooling of all the body sites studied was better described by the two-exponential model than the single exponential one. The study also showed that the weak airflow present in the experimental conditions did not practically affect the course of cooling of the investigated body sites. Eyeball temperature measurements with an infra-red laser thermometer performed during the experiment proved to be of no use for determination of the time of death. The experiments allowed for defining the so far unreported value of physiological temperature of pig eyeball as 38 degrees C.

Combined pH/organic solvent gradient HPLC in analysis of forensic material

A combined pH/organic solvent linear gradient mode in high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is presented as a new approach to determination of low concentrations of ionogenic analytes in biological material. The approach consists in simultaneous development of linear gradients of pH and organic modifier in the mobile phase. Advantages of the method are illustrated in postmortem analysis of opipramol in material from suicide victims. Very narrow peaks without tailing were obtained and several times lower limits of analyte quantitation were achieved using ultraviolet detection as compared to a standard isocratic method. The double gradient HPLC method seems to be especially valuable in case of ionogenic analytes dispersed in complex biological matrices. That is due to a high selectivity of the double gradient method and the lack of peak tailing, which is commonly observed for basic analytes chromatographed at isocratic conditions.

pH/Organic Solvent Double-Gradient Reversed-Phase HPLC

A new reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatographic (RP HPLC) procedure has been theoretically and experimentally established. The approach consists of the simultaneous development of a gradient of pH and of the organic modifier in the mobile phase. The proposed theoretical model of the pH/organic solvent double-gradient RP HPLC allows determination of both pK(a) and the lipophilicity parameter of the ionized and the nonionized form of the analyte and prediction of the retention times at specific separation conditions as well as bandwidth for all analytes. The model provides a rational basis for optimization of separation of ionizable analytes at any given chromatographic mode and analysis conditions. In addition, in the case of pH/organic solvent double-gradient RP HPLC, a compression of analyte peak and its reduced tailing can be expected.

[Controversies concerning the comma. The voice in the discussion]

In the article, a case is presented, which was assessed in accordance with the Constitutional Tribunal sentence of July 7th, 2003. Due to an essential change in the legal system entailing a return to the contents of art. 156 section 1 p. 2 of the Penal Code resolved on June 6th, 1997, this sentence caused the forming of the opinions which are medically illogical and contradictory to medico-legal experience.