Advanced Electroanalysis for Electrosynthesis

Electrosynthesis is a popular, environmentally friendly substitute for conventional organic methods. It involves using charge transfer to stimulate chemical reactions through the application of a potential or current between two electrodes. In addition to electrode materials and the type of reactor employed, the strategies for controlling potential and current have an impact on the yields, product distribution, and reaction mechanism. In this Review, recent advances related to electroanalysis applied in electrosynthesis were discussed. The first part of this study acts as a guide that emphasizes the foundations of electrosynthesis. These essentials include instrumentation, electrode selection, cell design, and electrosynthesis methodologies. Then, advances in electroanalytical techniques applied in organic, enzymatic, and microbial electrosynthesis are illustrated with specific cases studied in recent literature. To conclude, a discussion of future possibilities that intend to advance the academic and industrial areas is presented.

Structure, dynamics, and redox reactivity of an all-purpose flavodoxin

The flavodoxin of Rhodopseudomonas palustris CGA009 (Rp9Fld) supplies highly reducing equivalents to crucial enzymes such as hydrogenase, especially when the organism is iron-restricted. By acquiring those electrons from photodriven electron flow via the bifurcating electron transfer flavoprotein, Rp9Fld provides solar power to vital metabolic processes. To understand Rp9Fld's ability to work with diverse partners, we solved its crystal structure. We observed the canonical flavodoxin (Fld) fold and features common to other long-chain Flds but not all the surface loops thought to recognize partner proteins. Moreover, some of the loops display alternative structures and dynamics. To advance studies of protein-protein associations and conformational consequences, we assigned the 19F NMR signals of all five tyrosines (Tyrs). Our electrochemical measurements show that incorporation of 3-19F-Tyr in place of Tyr has only a modest effect on Rp9Fld's redox properties even though Tyrs flank the flavin on both sides. Meanwhile, the 19F probes demonstrate the expected paramagnetic effect, with signals from nearby Tyrs becoming broadened beyond detection when the flavin semiquinone is formed. However, the temperature dependencies of chemical shifts and linewidths reveal dynamics affecting loops close to the flavin and regions that bind to partners in a variety of systems. These coincide with patterns of amino acid type conservation but not retention of specific residues, arguing against detailed specificity with respect to partners. We propose that the loops surrounding the flavin adopt altered conformations upon binding to partners and may even participate actively in electron transfer.

Organic β-cyclodextrin Nanoparticle: An Efficient Building Block Between Functionalized Poly(pyrrole) Electrodes and Enzymes

Glyconanoparticles (GNPs) made by self-assembly of carbohydrate-based polystyrene-block-β-cyclodextrin copolymer are used as a building block for the design of nanostructured biomaterials of electrode. The firm immobilization of GNPs is carried out on electrochemically generated polymer, poly(pyrrole-adamantane), and copolymer, poly(pyrrole-adamantane)/poly(pyrrole-lactobionamide) via host-guest interactions between adamantane and β-cyclodextrin. The ability of GNPs for the specific anchoring of biological macromolecules is investigated using glucose oxidase enzyme modified by adamantane groups as a protein model (GOx-Ad). The immobilization of GOx-Ad is carried out by incubation of an aqueous enzyme solution on a coating of GNPs adsorbed on a platinum electrode. The presence of immobilized GOx-Ad is evaluated in aqueous glucose solution by potentiostating the underlying platinum electrode at 0.7 V/SCE for the electro-oxidation of H₂ O₂ generated by the enzyme. The analytical performance of the bioelectrodes for the detection of glucose is compared to control electrodes prepared without GNPs or without electropolymerized films. The better permeability of copolymer compared to polymer and the possibility to elaborate two alternating layers of GNPs and GOx-Ad are clearly observed. The best amperometric response is recorded with a multilayered bioelectrode displaying a wide linear range linear range of the calibration curve: 68 µmol L^-1 to 0.1 mol L^-1 .

Trialkoxyheptazine-Based Glyconanoparticles for Fluorescence in Aqueous Solutions and on Surfaces via Controlled Binding in Space

The fluorescent organic 2,5,8-tris((adamantan-1-yl)-methoxy)-heptazine (HTZ-Ad) was solubilized in water by inclusion of adamantane groups into free β-cyclodextrins or a cyclodextrin shell of glyconanoparticles. These glyconanoparticles with average diameters between 40 and 60 nm result from the self-assembly of polystyrene-block-β-cyclodextrin copolymers. Under UV irradiation at 365 nm, the modified nanoparticles exhibit fluorescence emission in aqueous media as well as in their adsorbed state. This constitutes the first spectroscopic characterization of a trialkoxyheptazine in aqueous medium. The specific binding of the glyconanoparticles to a surface was achieved via host-guest interactions with an electrochemically generated poly(pyrrole-adamantane) film. An interdigitated microelectrode modified with poly(pyrrole-adamantane) film and glyconanoparticles was incubated in HTZ-Ad, resulting in a substrate with spatially controlled fluorescence. The same modified electrode was incubated with an aqueous suspension of glyconanoparticles previously functionalized by HTZ-Ad, resulting in a fluorescent 3D assembly.