Intimate Partner Violence: A Multinational Test of Cultural Spillover Theory

Cultural spillover theory asserts that the prevalence of socially legitimate violence to attain ends for which there is widespread social approval is part of the explanation for the prevalence of illegitimate violence. This study was a test of the cultural spillover theory as it applies to intimate partner violence (IPV). Based on data from the International Dating Violence Study (IDVS) in 32 countries, we tested the proposition that agreement with socially approved forms of violence "spills over" into violence against an intimate partner. Two versions of an index to measure legitimate violence were constructed: (a) An individual-level legitimate violence index based on the beliefs and behavior of 14,252 university students in 32 nations in the IDVS and (b) a nation-level legitimate violence index consisting of the mean of the student scores on the legitimate violence index for each of the 32 nations in the IDVS. We used the revised Conflict Tactics Scales to obtain the data on physical violence and injuries inflicted by the students in the IDVS. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to test the hypothesized relation of the individual student legitimate violence index to IPV. Socioeconomic status, limited disclosure scale, respondent's age, and length of the relationships were included as covariates. Multiple regression analyses were conducted to further investigate the associations between legitimate violence index obtained from the aggregated student data and the nation-level IPV, controlling for the gross domestic product (GDP) index and limited disclosure scale. Both individual- and nation-level analyses consistently supported cultural spillover theory's explanation of IPV. The association between legitimate violence and IPV at both levels of analysis was stronger for women than men, which is consistent with some previous studies. The results suggest that reducing legitimate violence can make an important contribution to reducing IPV.

Risk Factors for Concordance Between Partners in Assault Among University Student Couples

Based on information 11,408 university students provided on perpetration of physical assault in a romantic relationship, they were classified into three Dyadic Concordance Types (DCTs). We then examined six risk factors drawn from previous literature of partner violence: physical abuse as a child, antisocial personality characteristics, alcohol abuse, coercive control, chronic denigration in a relationship, and patriarchy at the societal level. We hypothesized that some risk factors for assault are different dependent on the DCT. Using multinomial logistic regression, we found that some risk factors were associated with an increase in the risk of a couple being in the Male Only assaulted DCT more than the other two DCTs (e.g., men who were high in antisocial personality characteristics). Other risk factors were found to be associated with a greater increase in the risk a couple being in the Both assaulted DCTs (e.g., chronic denigration). These results suggest that theories about the etiology of partner violence should take into account whether the couple is Male Only, Female Only, and Both assaulted. Identification of the DCTs of cases can be helpful in focusing research, treatment, and prevention of partner violence in a way that better reflects the actual situation.

Concordance Between Parents in Perpetration of Child Mistreatment: How Often Is It by Father-Only, Mother-Only, or by Both and What Difference Does It Make?

Research on child mistreatment tends to focus on the mother or the father as the abusing parent, even though there is wide agreement that both theory and practice should deal with child maltreatment as a family system problem. Most children have the benefit or the risk of more than one caretaker for substantial periods of their lives, most often two parents or stepparents. This article is intended to illustrate the value of research which uses concordance analysis (CA) to identify children who experienced three dyadic concordance types (DCTs) of mistreatment: father-only, mother-only, or both parents, including single-parent combinations of caretakers. A concordance approach that identifies possible abusers in addition to the presenting parent using the three DCTs is a practical first step toward a family system perspective to enhance child abuse theory, research, and practice.

Future Research on Gender Symmetry in Physical Assaults on Partners

In the light of evidence from about 200 studies showing gender symmetry in perpetration of partner assault, research can now focus on why gender symmetry is predominant and on the implications of symmetry for primary prevention and treatment of partner violence. Progress in such research is handicapped by a number of problems: (1) Insufficient empirical research and a surplus of discussion and theory, (2) Blinders imposed by commitment to a single causal factor theory—patriarchy and male dominance—in the face of overwhelming evidence that this is only one of a multitude of causes, (3) Research purporting to investigate gender differences but which obtains data on only one gender, (4) Denial of research grants to projects that do not assume most partner violence is by male perpetrators, (5) Failure to investigate primary prevention and treatment programs for female offenders, and (6) Suppression of evidence on female perpetration by both researchers and agencies.

Prevalence of Violence Against Dating Partners by Male and Female University Students Worldwide

This article presents rates of violence against dating partners by students at 31 universities in 16 countries (5 in Asia and the Middle East, 2 in Australia-New Zealand, 6 in Europe, 2 in Latin America, 16 in North America). Assault and injury rates are presented for males and females at each of the 31 universities. At the median university, 29% of the students physically assaulted a dating partner in the previous 12 months (range = 17% to 45%) and 7% had physically injured a partner (range = 2% to 20%). The results reveal both important differences and similarities between universities. Perhaps the most important similarity is the high rate of assault perpetrated by both male and female students in all the countries.

Addressing Violence by Female Partners Is Vital to Prevent or Stop Violence Against Women

This article presents a reanalysis of data from Gondolf’s (2012) article in this journal on reoffending by men in the 15-month period subsequent to participation in batterer intervention programs. Gondolf concludes that violence by the female partners “was relatively low and does not appear to influence the program outcome in terms of men’s reassault” (p. 10). The reanalyzed data lead to the opposite conclusion. The policy and practice implications are that the high rate of assault by women, including initiation of violence by female partners, needs to be addressed to enhance the effectiveness of programs to prevent and stop violence against women.

Mutuality, severity, and chronicity of violence by Father-Only, Mother-Only, and mutually violent parents as reported by university students in 15 nations

This article aims to provide a more complete description of the violence between parents experienced by children than is usual in research and to suggest the practicality and importance of doing so. It presents results on the percent of parents in each of three Dyadic Types: Father-Only (the father assaulted the mother and the mother did not assault), Mother-Only (mother assaulted and the father did not assault), and Both-Assault; and on differences between these three types in the chronicity and severity of assaults. Questionnaires were completed by convenience samples of university students in 15 nations (N=11,408). Violence between parents was measured by the short form of the Conflict Tactics Scales. Fourteen percent of the students reported one or more instances of physical violence between their parents, including 6% who reported a severe assault. Cross classification of assaults by the father and the mother to identify Dyadic Types found 25% Father-Only, 22% Mother-Only, and 52% Both-Assaulted. The percentage in each Dyadic Type based on reports by male or female students were similar. They were also consistent with percentages found by previous studies identifying the Dyadic Types of violent couples. In respect to chronicity, when violence between parents occurred, in 82% of the cases, it occurred more than once. Research on children experiencing violence between parents, and prevention and treatment of inter-parental violence, are likely to be enhanced if it takes into account that Both-Violent is the most frequent pattern to which children are exposed and that Mother-Only is about as frequent as Father-Only. Consideration of the severity, and chronicity, of the inter-parental violence needs to replace simply classifying parents as violent. Achieving this is possible using instruments which take only three to five minutes and which can be completed by only one of the parents or by the child.

Blaming the messenger for the bad news about partner violence by women: the methodological, theoretical, and value basis of the purported invalidity of the conflict tactics scales

More than 200 studies have found "gender symmetry" in perpetration of violence against a marital or dating partner in the sense that about the same percent of women as men physically assault a marital or dating partner. Most of these studies obtained the data using the Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS). However, these results have been challenged by numerous articles in the past 25 years that have asserted that the CTS is invalid. This article identifies and responds to 11 purported methodological problems of the CTS, and two other bases for the belief that the CTS is not valid. The discussion argues that the repeated assertion over the past 25 years that the CTS is invalid is not primarily about methodology. Rather it is primarily about theories and values concerning the results of research showing gender symmetry in perpetration. According to the prevailing "patriarchal dominance" theory, these results cannot be true and therefore the CTS must be invalid. The conclusion suggests that an essential part of the effort to prevent and treat violence against women and by women requires taking into account the dyadic nature of partner violence through use of instruments such as the CTS that measure violence by both partners.

Gender differences in intended escalatory tendencies among marital partners

This study addresses the intended escalatory tendency in eight hypothetical situations in which the provocator's identity (partner or stranger, male or female) and the provocation form (verbal or physical aggression) were manipulated. The research question is "how does the identity of the provocator and the form of his or her provocation affect the participant's intended escalation level, and does the gender of the participant affect differences in intended escalation level?" The research sample consisted of 208 Israeli couples. The main finding is that women's intended response to their male partner is more escalatory than men's intended response to their female partner. Results also show that women's escalation is the most severe to partner provocation and the least severe to male strangers' provocation. Men's escalation is the most severe to provocation by male strangers and the least severe to their partner's provocation. Findings indicate that men's intention to escalate decreases as their partner's provocation becomes more severe. The severity of provocation has little effect on women's inten-tion to escalate. Such results are consistent with social role theory and sexual selection theory that maintain that status enhancement is more important for men than for women, and is more important for men than risk reduction is, whereas the opposite is true for women.

Corporal punishment and long-term behavior problems: the moderating role of positive parenting and psychological aggression

The aims of this study were: (a) to examine the prevalence of corporal punishment (CP) of children in Spain; (b) to analyze the extent to which CP is used in combination with psychological aggression and positive parenting among Spanish parents; and (c) to investigate whether the relation between CP and behavior problems is moderated by a positive parenting context in which CP may be used, and by the co-occurrence of psychological aggression. The sample comprised 1,071 Spanish university students (74.8% female; 25.2% male). Findings indicate a high prevalence of CP of Spanish students, revealing that significantly more mothers than fathers used CP. Furthermore, more CP is related to more use of psychological aggression and less of positive parenting. Regression analyses revealed that CP was associated with an increased probability of antisocial traits and behaviors regardless of whether there was positive parenting and psychological aggression. These results highlight that, though many Spanish parents use CP as a disciplinary strategy, it appears to be related to negative outcomes for children regardless the parental context in which it is used.

Thirty Years of Denying the Evidence on Gender Symmetry in Partner Violence: Implications for Prevention and Treatment

The first part of this article summarizes results from more than 200 studies that have found gender symmetry in perpetration and in risk factors and motives for physical violence in martial and dating relationships. It also summarizes research that has found that most partner violence is mutual and that self-defense explains only a small percentage of partner violence by either men or women. The second part of the article documents seven methods that have been used to deny, conceal, and distort the evidence on gender symmetry. The third part of the article suggests explanations for the denial of an overwhelming body of evidence by reputable scholars. The concluding section argues that ignoring the overwhelming evidence of gender symmetry has crippled prevention and treatment programs. It suggests ways in which prevention and treatment efforts might be improved by changing ideologically based programs to programs based on the evidence from the past 30 years of research.

Polyvictimization by Dating Partners and Mental Health Among U.S. College Students

Studies on mental health effects of partner violence often ignore multiple victimizations or polyvictimization. The current study had several objectives: (a) examine the rate of physical, psychological, and sexual victimization and combinations of them (polyvictimization) among a sample of students at 19 U.S. colleges; (b) examine the association between victimization and depressive symptoms and posttraumatic stress (PTS) symptoms; and (c) examine the relation of polyvictimization to these mental health effects. A substantial number were polyvictims. As predicted, polyvictimization in almost all analyses was the strongest predictor of PTS symptoms for both men and women. Polyvictimization was a significant predictor of depressive symptoms for women. These findings highlight the importance of including polyvictimization in future work on the mental health effects of partner violence.

Bucking the tide in family violence research

This autobiographical article recounts a 60-year career on research and teaching, 40 of which focused on interpersonal violence against other family members. Much of that research was carried despite prevailing beliefs which characterized either the methodology or the theory to be wrong. The article illustrates four underlining themes: iconoclasm; capitalizing on chance occurrences to select research topics; the conflict between ideology, evidence, and steps taken by critics to deny or discredit the results of my research; and the role of the personal history and the personality of the researcher in molding a scientific career.

Binge drinking and violence against dating partners: the mediating effect of antisocial traits and behaviors in a multinational perspective

Research has consistently shown a link between alcohol use and partner violence (PV). Little is known concerning the strength of this association across cultures and genders, and few have assessed possible mediators. This study assesses the link between binge drinking and PV among 7,921 college students in 38 sites around the world, and investigates the mediating role of antisocial traits and behaviors (ASTB). A significant association was found between binge drinking and PV, the strength of which differed by site but not by gender. ASTB fully mediated this association. The mean level of binge drinking at each site did not significantly influence the strength of the association between binge drinking and PV.

Gender symmetry in prevalence, severity, and chronicity of physical aggression against dating partners by university students in Mexico and USA

The paper reports results from analyses of the physical aggression against dating partners by four samples of university students in Ciudad Juarez, Mexico, Mexican Americans and Non-Mexican Whites in El Paso and Lubbock Texas, and New Hampshire (N=1,544). The percent reporting partner violence (PV) was high in all samples, but also differed significantly between samples. The lowest rate was in New Hampshire (29.7%), followed by Texas, Non-Mexican Whites (30.9%), Texas Mexican American (34.2%), and the highest rate was in Juarez (46.1%). When only severe assaults were compared, the differences between samples was similar, i.e., lowest in New Hampshire and highest in Juarez. In all four samples, there was no significant difference between males and females in either the overall prevalence of physical aggression or the prevalence of severe attacks. Among the 553 couples where one or both of the partners were violent, in almost three quarters of the cases (71.2%) there was gender symmetry in the sense that both partners engaged in this type of behavior. When only one partner was violent, this was twice as likely to be the female partner (19.0%) as the male partner (9.8%). Among the 205 couples where there was an act of severe aggression, symmetry was less prevalent (56.6%), but when only one partner was violent, it was again twice as likely to be the female partner (29.8% female only versus 13.7 male partner only). These results are consistent with the gender symmetry in PV found in many studies. They extend those results by showing that gender symmetry prevails in four different cultural contexts. The presence of gender symmetry in these different cultural contexts, combined with studies showing that women are injured more often and more seriously by partner-assaults, and studies showing that women initiate PV as often as men, suggests that programs and policies aimed at primary prevention of PV by women are crucial to ending PV and for reducing the victimization of men and women.

Cross-cultural reliability and validity of the Multidimensional Neglectful Behavior Scale Adult Recall Short Form

OBJECTIVE

To provide data on the cross-cultural reliability of the Adult Recall Short Form of the Multidimensional Neglectful Behavior Scale (MNBS), and also illustrative validity evidence. The MNBS includes items on four aspects of neglectful behavior: cognitive, emotional, physical, and supervisory.

METHOD

The data were obtained by questionnaires completed by a convenience sample of 7179 students at 33 universities in 17 countries.

RESULTS

The alpha coefficient of internal consistency for the entire sample was .72. By site, the coefficients ranged from one site with .55-12 sites in the .60-.69 range, and 20 sites with alpha of .70 or higher. The validity of the scale was indicated by low confounding with social desirability response set in all 33 cultural contexts, and by the results of construct validly analyses which controlled for physical maltreatment found that students who were victims of neglectful behavior as a child were more likely than other students to have physically assaulted a dating partner in the previous 12 months.

CONCLUSIONS

Although the results are from a relatively privileged sample, they revealed high rates of neglectful behavior and are sufficiently promising to encourage use of the Adult Recall Short Form of the MNBS in a variety of cultural settings.

Neglectful behavior by parents in the life history of university students in 17 countries and its relation to violence against dating partners

This article reports the prevalence of neglectful behavior by parents of university students in 17 nations (6 in Europe, 2 in North America, 2 in Latin America, 5 in Asia, Australia, and New Zealand) and tests the hypothesis that neglect is a risk factor for violence against a dating partner. The percentage at each university who experienced neglectful behavior ranged from 3.2% to 36% (median 12%), and the percentage who perpetrated violence against dating partners ranged from 15% to 45% (median 28%). Multilevel modeling found that the more neglectful behavior experienced as a child the greater the probability of assaulting and injuring a dating partner and that the link between experiencing neglect and perpetrating violence is stronger at universities in which dating violence is more prevalent. Efforts to help parents avoid neglectful behavior can make an important contribution to primary prevention of partner violence and probably also other forms of child maltreatment.

Development and preliminary psychometric properties of the multidimensional neglectful behavior scale-child report

This article describes the development and psychometric properties of the Multidimensional Neglectful Behavior Scale-Child Report (MNBS-CR). The measure is broadly conceptualized to tap child neglect across four core domains: cognitive, emotional, physical and supervisory neglect, and it assesses exposure to violence, alcohol-related neglect, abandonment, and children's appraisals of parenting. Features include pictorial items, audio computer-assisted testing, and programming by age and gender of the child and caregiver. A clinical sample of 144 children, age 6 to 15 years, and a comparison sample of 87 children were tested. Results showed that the MNBS-CR has high reliability, with higher reliability found for older children (alpha = .94) than for younger children (alpha = .66). Among older children, the MNBS-CR Supervisory scale was significantly associated with the Child Behavior Check List (CBCL), and total MNBS-CR scores were significantly associated with clinician reports of behavioral disorders. Younger and older neglected children scored significantly higher on the MNBS-CR than community children.

A short form of the Revised Conflict Tactics Scales, and typologies for severity and mutuality

The revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2) is the most widely used instrument for measuring intimate partner violence. This article presents a short form to enable the CTS2 to be used when testing time is very limited. It also presents procedures that can be used with either the full test or the short form to classify individuals on the basis of severity of behavior toward a partner or by a partner, and to classify couples on the basis of mutuality or symmetry in the behaviors measured by the CTS2. The results indicate that the short form is comparable in validity to the full CTS2. Although the short form does not identify as many cases of partner violence as the full scale, it does identify a large number of cases and if there is insufficient time for the full scale, can be a useful screening instrument.

A short form of the Revised Conflict Tactics Scales, and typologies for severity and mutuality

The revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2) is the most widely used instrument for measuring intimate partner violence. This article presents a short form to enable the CTS2 to be used when testing time is very limited. It also presents procedures that can be used with either the full test or the short form to classify individuals on the basis of severity of behavior toward a partner or by a partner, and to classify couples on the basis of mutuality or symmetry in the behaviors measured by the CTS2. The results indicate that the short form is comparable in validity to the full CTS2. Although the short form does not identify as many cases of partner violence as the full scale, it does identify a large number of cases and if there is insufficient time for the full scale, can be a useful screening instrument.

Criminal history and assault of dating partners: the role of type of prior crime, age of onset, and gender

Some studies of assaults on intimate partners have found that most of the perpetrators are not violent outside the family, which suggests a specialized type of crime. However, other studies found domestic violence offenders tend to have extensive criminal histories. To further investigate the extent to which partner assaults are part of a more general pattern of criminal behavior or a specialized type of crime, we studied the dating relationships of 653 university students. Thirty-one percent reported assaulting a partner in the previous 12 months. The rate of assault on partners by females did not differ significantly for males (29%) and females (32%). We also found high rates of other self-reported crime, and much higher rates by males. For example, over one half of the male students and almost one third of the female students reported having stolen money. The male students reported an average of 3.4 crimes committed, and the female students an average of 1.4 crimes. These high crime rates and gender differences are consistent with many previous studies. Logistic regression analysis revealed that a history of prior criminal acts is associated with an increased probability of assaulting a partner. The relationship was greater when there was prior violent crime compared to property crime, when there was early onset of criminal behavior, and when the offender was female. The implications of the findings for understanding partner assaults, criminal careers, and gender differences in the etiology of violence against intimate partners are discussed.

Corporal punishment and primary prevention of physical abuse

OBJECTIVE

To bring to the attention child maltreatment professionals the potential for primary prevention of physical abuse of ending or reducing corporal punishment by parents.

METHOD

The October 1999 special issue of Child Abuse & Neglect on "A National Call to Action: Working Toward the Elimination of Child Maltreatment" was reviewed in relation to coverage of corporal punishment by parents.

RESULTS

Corporal punishment was not mentioned in any of the nine articles.

CONCLUSIONS

The combination of research showing that corporal punishment is a major risk factor for physical abuse and research showing the wide prevalence and chronicity of corporal punishment suggests that the "National Call For Action" should include steps to end use of corporal punishment as a mode of discipline.

Corporal punishment by American parents: national data on prevalence, chronicity, severity, and duration, in relation to child and family characteristics

We present data on corporal punishment (CP) by a nationally representative sample of 991 American parents interviewed in 1995. Six types of CP were examined: slaps on the hand or leg, spanking on the buttocks, pinching, shaking, hitting on the buttocks with a belt or paddle, and slapping in the face. The overall prevalence rate (the percentage of parents using any of these types of CP during the previous year) was 35% for infants and reached a peak of 94% at ages 3 and 4. Despite rapid decline after age 5, just over half of American parents hit children at age 12, a third at age 14, and 13% at age 17. Analysis of chronicity found that parents who hit teenage children did so an average of about six times during the year. Severity, as measured by hitting the child with a belt or paddle, was greatest for children age 5-12 (28% of such children). CP was more prevalent among African American and low socioeconomic status parents, in the South, for boys, and by mothers. The pervasiveness of CP reported in this article, and the harmful side effects of CP shown by recent longitudinal research, indicates a need for psychology and sociology textbooks to reverse the current tendency to almost ignore CP and instead treat it as a major aspect of the socialization experience of American children; and for developmental psychologists to be cognizant of the likelihood that parents are using CP far more often than even advocates of CP recommend, and to inform parents about the risks involved.

Identification of child maltreatment with the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scales: development and psychometric data for a national sample of American parents

OBJECTIVE

To create a parent-to-child version of the Conflict Tactics Scales, the CTSPC.

METHOD

Description of the conceptual and methodological approaches used and psychometric data for a nationally representative sample of 1,000 U.S. children.

RESULTS

(1) Improved Psychological Aggression and Physical Assault scales. (2) New Nonviolent Discipline scale, supplementary scale for Neglect, and supplemental questions on discipline methods and sexual abuse. (3) Reliability ranges from low to moderate. (4) Evidence of discriminant and construct validity.

CONCLUSIONS

The CTSPC is better suited to measuring child maltreatment than the original CTS. It is brief (6 to 8 minutes for the core scales) and therefore practical for epidemiological research on child maltreatment and for clinical screening. Methodological issues inherent in parent self-report measures of child maltreatment are discussed.

Impulsive corporal punishment by mothers and antisocial behavior and impulsiveness of children

This study tested the hypothesis that corporal punishment (CP), such as spanking or slapping a child for purposes of correcting misbehavior, is associated with antisocial behavior (ASB) and impulsiveness by the child. The data were obtained through interviews with a probability sample of 933 mothers of children age 2-14 in two small American cities. Analyses of variance found that the more CP experienced by the child, the greater the tendency for the child to engage in ASB and to act impulsively. These relationships hold even after controlling for family socioeconomic status, the age and sex of the child, nurturance by the mother, and the level of noncorporal interventions by the mother. There were also significant interaction effects of CP with impulsiveness by the mother. When CP was carried out impulsively, it was most strongly related to child impulsiveness and ASB; when CP was done when the mother was under control, the relationship to child behavior problems was reduced but still present. In view of the fact that there is a high risk of losing control when engaged in CP, even by parents who are not usually impulsive, and the fact that impulsive CP is so strongly associated with child behavior problems, the results of this study suggest that CP is an important risk factor for children developing a pattern of impulsive and antisocial behavior which, in turn, may contribute to the level of violence and other crime in society.

Impulsive corporal punishment by mothers and antisocial behavior and impulsiveness of children

This study tested the hypothesis that corporal punishment (CP), such as spanking or slapping a child for purposes of correcting misbehavior, is associated with antisocial behavior (ASB) and impulsiveness by the child. The data were obtained through interviews with a probability sample of 933 mothers of children age 2-14 in two small American cities. Analyses of variance found that the more CP experienced by the child, the greater the tendency for the child to engage in ASB and to act impulsively. These relationships hold even after controlling for family socioeconomic status, the age and sex of the child, nurturance by the mother, and the level of noncorporal interventions by the mother. There were also significant interaction effects of CP with impulsiveness by the mother. When CP was carried out impulsively, it was most strongly related to child impulsiveness and ASB; when CP was done when the mother was under control, the relationship to child behavior problems was reduced but still present. In view of the fact that there is a high risk of losing control when engaged in CP, even by parents who are not usually impulsive, and the fact that impulsive CP is so strongly associated with child behavior problems, the results of this study suggest that CP is an important risk factor for children developing a pattern of impulsive and antisocial behavior which, in turn, may contribute to the level of violence and other crime in society.

Impulsive corporal punishment by mothers and antisocial behavior and impulsiveness of children

This study tested the hypothesis that corporal punishment (CP), such as spanking or slapping a child for purposes of correcting misbehavior, is associated with antisocial behavior (ASB) and impulsiveness by the child. The data were obtained through interviews with a probability sample of 933 mothers of children age 2-14 in two small American cities. Analyses of variance found that the more CP experienced by the child, the greater the tendency for the child to engage in ASB and to act impulsively. These relationships hold even after controlling for family socioeconomic status, the age and sex of the child, nurturance by the mother, and the level of noncorporal interventions by the mother. There were also significant interaction effects of CP with impulsiveness by the mother. When CP was carried out impulsively, it was most strongly related to child impulsiveness and ASB; when CP was done when the mother was under control, the relationship to child behavior problems was reduced but still present. In view of the fact that there is a high risk of losing control when engaged in CP, even by parents who are not usually impulsive, and the fact that impulsive CP is so strongly associated with child behavior problems, the results of this study suggest that CP is an important risk factor for children developing a pattern of impulsive and antisocial behavior which, in turn, may contribute to the level of violence and other crime in society.

Spanking by parents and subsequent antisocial behavior of children

OBJECTIVE

To deal with the causal relationship between corporal punishment and antisocial behavior (ASB) by considering the level of ASB of the child at the start of the study.

METHODS

Data from interviews with a national sample of 807 mothers of children aged 6 to 9 years in the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth-Child Supplement. Analysis of variance was used to test the hypothesis that when parents use corporal punishment to correct ASB, it increases subsequent ASB. The analysis controlled for the level of ASB at the start of the study, family socio-economic status, sex of the child, and the extent to which the home provided emotional support and cognitive stimulation.

RESULTS

Forty-four percent of the mothers reported spanking their children during the week prior to the study and they spanked them an average of 2.1 times that week. The more spanking at the start of the period, the higher the level of ASB 2 years later. The change is unlikely to be owing to the child's tendency toward ASB or to confounding with demographic characteristics or with parental deficiency in other key aspects of socialization because those variables were statistically controlled.

CONCLUSIONS

When parents use corporal punishment to reduce ASB, the long-term effect tends to be the opposite. The findings suggest that if parents replace corporal punishment by nonviolent modes of discipline, it could reduce the risk of ASB among children and reduce the level of violence in American society.

Sexually abused children in a national survey of parents: methodological issues

In a national survey of 1,000 parents, which primarily concerned disciplinary practices and violence toward their children, two questions were asked about whether the children had been sexually abused. This was to assess the feasibility of epidemiological research on contemporaneous sexual abuse using parental interviews rather than the usual adult retrospective approach. From these questions, rates of sexual abuse for children currently 0-17 were estimated at 1.9% in the last year and 5.7% ever. The cases making up these rates included a nearly equal number of boys and girls and no female victims between the ages of 9 and 12, a distribution different from those generally obtained by other epidemiological methods, but due possibly in this case to normal sampling variation. Cases were more likely to be disclosed for children whose parents had themselves been sexually abused, who were from lower income households, or who were living with only one biologic parent. Although some of the findings suggest caution in generalizing about child sexual abuse from survey samples of parents, the method is worthy of exploration if only to gain better epidemiologic data about parent knowledge, reaction, reporting, and coping strategies.

Screening for physical violence in couple therapy: methodological, practical, and ethical considerations

Over two-thirds of clients in family therapy clinics engage in some form of physical violence against their partners within the year prior to the initiation of therapy. However, family therapists are aware of only a small proportion of these cases. The purpose of this article is to enhance the ability of family therapists to detect marital violence. We examine client and therapist reasons for why physical violence is not detected. We then review various methods to screen for the presence of physical violence, especially the Conflict Tactics Scales. Finally, indicators of life-threatening violence are presented to help family therapists detect cases that require immediate intervention to protect the partner whose life may be in danger.

Social stress and state-to-state differences in smoking and smoking related mortality in the United States

This paper reports on the relationship between the stressfulness of the social environment, smoking and mortality rates for malignant neoplasms of the respiratory system and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). A macro-social approach was employed with the 50 states of the United States serving as the units of analysis. A 'State Stress Index' was computed using stressful events in 15 categories (divorce rate, business failures, natural disasters, etc.). Smoking behavior was measured by percentage smokers and the average cigarette sales per capita. Mortality rates for lung cancer and COPD were standardized by age. The percent population living in metropolitan areas, black, below poverty line, and with less than high school education were included as controls in the multiple regression analysis. The results show that populations that experience higher levels of stressful events smoke more heavily and eventually experience higher mortality from lung cancer and COPD. These relationships are robust: they are replicated for different time periods, for different measures of the independent and dependent variables, and with different analytic methods. The pattern of findings is consistent with a 'health behavior' model of stress in which populations under stress engage in behavior which is extremely inimical to health.

Family patterns and primary prevention of family violence

Although services for victims and treatment programs for batterers have priority in efforts to ameliorate family violence, primary prevention programs are also essential. The importance of primary prevention lies not only in the suffering which can avoided, but also because it is unlikely that sufficient treatment resources can be allocated to match the magnitude of the problem. The latter point is illustrated by the results of a study of nationally representative samples of 2,143 families (studied in 1975) and 6,002 families (studied in 1985). These studies show that a minimum of 16% of American couples experienced an assault during the year of the study, and that about 40% of these involved severely violent acts, such as kicking, biting, punching, choking, and attacks with weapons. These studies also identified risk factors that can serve as the focus for primary prevention, for example, early marriage, male dominance in the family and use of physical punishment. Educational and therapeutic efforts, and economic changes, which encourage equality and which teach the skills necessary for an equal relationship, can help prevent family violence.

Substance abuse as a precipitant of wife abuse victimizations

This study examines the question of whether drug and alcohol use by victims constitutes a risk factor increasing the chances of their being assaulted by their partners. Data from a subsample of the 1985 National Family Violence Survey consisting of the 2,033 female respondents who were currently married or living in a male-female couple relationship are used as the basis of the analysis. The logistic analysis revealed that, of the ten variables in the model, the most important for distinguishing abused from nonabused women are husband's drug use, a history of paternal violence in womens' family or origin, husband's drunkenness, low income, and wife's drunkenness. Women who abuse alcohol are more likely to be victims of minor marital violence, but female substance abuse of any type is not a significant factor in severe violence.

Capital intensive hospital technology and illness: an analysis of American state data

This paper: describes the development of a 'hospital technology index' to measure the level of capital intensive medical technology in each of the 50 U.S. states and the District of Columbia, reports differences between states in scores on this index, and tests the hypothesis that there is a low but significant negative correlation between the level of capital intensive medical technology and the level of illness. The three subscales of the hospital technology index have high alpha coefficients of reliability, are reasonably orthogonal, and there is at least some evidence of construct and discriminant validity for each. The multiple regression analysis suggests that there is either no relation between capital intensive medical technology and the rate of illness or that there is a slight tendency for the illness rate to increase as the level of technology increases. Eight possible explanations for the findings are discussed.

Social stress, normative constraints and alcohol problems in American states

Robert Bales' theory explains rates of alcoholism in populations by the combination of socially induced stress and tension together with a normative system that promotes the use of alcohol for releasing that tension. This paper provides the first systematic test of that theory by combining the variables of social stress and normative approval of alcohol within the same research design. Ecological correlations are used with the 50 states as units of analysis. Stress was measured by a 'state stress index' based on 15 stressful 'life events' aggregated to the state level. Events vary from rates of divorce to community disaster. Normative constraints on drinking were measured by a multi-indicator proscriptive norms index based on religious composition and legal impediments to the purchase and consumption of alcohol. The states were divided into quartiles based on normative constraints surrounding alcohol use from proscriptive to permissive. Alcohol problems were measured by three indicators of heavy drinking and three indicators of alcohol related arrests. All but one of the 24 correlations between the state stress index and the indicators of alcohol problems were highest within the context of strong cultural support for the use of alcohol, thus supporting Bales' original theory. For the arrest variables there was also a clear pattern of curvilinearity, with a second distinct 'peak' in the correlations within the polar opposite quartile of proscriptive states. Competing explanations for the pattern are discussed including the 'social control' hypothesis and the 'ambivalence' hypothesis.

Drinking norms and alcohol-related problems in the United States

One of Bales's three related hypotheses concerning how cultures or social structures influence the level of alcoholism in a population--that culturally determined attitudes toward drinking and intoxication determine whether alcohol will be used to relieve the stress generated in a society--is examined in the first systematic test of that hypothesis based on American data. A proscriptive norm index was computed for each of the 50 states based on percentage population residing in legally dry areas, the degree of legal restrictions on the sale or consumption of alcoholic beverages and the percentage population of Mormons and Fundamentalists. The most proscriptive states are located in the southern region of the United States. Proscriptive norms are significantly correlated with all of the indicators of alcohol-related problems studied. Most of the correlations remain significant when five other variables are controlled. Proscriptive norms are negatively correlated with the indicators of heavy drinking, but positively correlated with the "social disruptiveness" of alcohol (arrest data). Thus driving while intoxicated and other alcohol-related arrests do not appear to arise as a response to the total amount of drinking. Instead, such alcohol-related problems appear to be a response to the strong cultural disapproval of drinking, with the proscriptively oriented states experiencing the highest rates of disruptive behaviors related to alcohol. The findings are consistent with a social control explanation for this link.

Stressful events, stressful conditions and alcohol problems in the United States: a partial test of Bales's theory

Bales's theory that sociostructural factors that produce stress for members of a society increase the rate of alcoholism is examined to explain variations in the levels of alcoholism in the 50 states. Two types of social stress are conceptualized and measured at the state level: The first, the "life events" model, is based on life changes that require adaptation. An index is described in which (negative) personal life events in 15 categories (e.g., divorce and plant closings) are aggregated for each state using macro measures. The second model is based on the idea of chronic stressful conditions, and is measured through the Measure of Status Integration and the Index of Relative Opportunities. Alcohol-related problems are measured by death rates for cirrhosis, alcoholism and alcoholic psychosis, and by per capita alcohol consumption. Both stressful events and stressful conditions are correlated with all indicators of alcoholism at the state level, 19 of 20 correlations being in the theoretically expected direction. Correlations are enhanced when age, urbanicity, the percentage of Blacks, low income and education are controlled for. The three macro measures of stress taken together explain 27% of the variation in cirrhosis death rates, 14% of the variation in alcoholism and alcoholic psychosis death rates and 47% of the variation in alcohol consumption rates.

Make love not war? Sex, sexual meanings, and violence in a sample of university students

Some previous studies show that sexual arousal heightens aggression, some show no relationship, and others show that sex inhibits aggression. It is suggested that the contradictions can be explained by the failure of these studies to consider the subjective meaning of sexual acts. To empirically test this notion, questionnaires were given to 190 students in three New England colleges. It was found that a high level of sexual activity is associated with a low level of violence, but only if the meaning of that activity is one of a warm, affectionate act. For men who follow the traditional male stereotype of sex as a dominant and exploitative act, higher levels of sexual activity are associated with the aggression and violence typically associated with attempts to dominate. For women, these relationships were weak or nonexistent. Reasons for the sex differences are discussed.