1
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Liu H, Ghosh S, Vaidya T, Bammidi S, Huang C, Shang P, Nair AP, Chowdhury O, Stepicheva NA, Strizhakova A, Hose S, Mitrousis N, Gadde SG, Mb T, Strassburger P, Widmer G, Lad EM, Fort PE, Sahel JA, Zigler JS, Sethu S, Westenskow PD, Proia AD, Sodhi A, Ghosh A, Feenstra D, Sinha D. Activated cGAS/STING signaling elicits endothelial cell senescence in early diabetic retinopathy. JCI Insight 2023; 8:e168945. [PMID: 37345657 PMCID: PMC10371250 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.168945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2023] [Accepted: 05/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a leading cause of blindness in working-age adults and remains an important public health issue worldwide. Here we demonstrate that the expression of stimulator of interferon genes (STING) is increased in patients with DR and animal models of diabetic eye disease. STING has been previously shown to regulate cell senescence and inflammation, key contributors to the development and progression of DR. To investigate the mechanism whereby STING contributes to the pathogenesis of DR, diabetes was induced in STING-KO mice and STINGGT (loss-of-function mutation) mice, and molecular alterations and pathological changes in the retina were characterized. We report that retinal endothelial cell senescence, inflammation, and capillary degeneration were all inhibited in STING-KO diabetic mice; these observations were independently corroborated in STINGGT mice. These protective effects resulted from the reduction in TBK1, IRF3, and NF-κB phosphorylation in the absence of STING. Collectively, our results suggest that targeting STING may be an effective therapy for the early prevention and treatment of DR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haitao Liu
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Sayan Ghosh
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Tanuja Vaidya
- GROW Laboratory, Narayana Nethralaya Foundation, Bengaluru, India
| | - Sridhar Bammidi
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Chao Huang
- Pharma Research and Early Development, Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche, Ltd., Basel, Switzerland
| | - Peng Shang
- Doheny Eye Institute, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | | | - Olivia Chowdhury
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Nadezda A Stepicheva
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Anastasia Strizhakova
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Stacey Hose
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Nikolaos Mitrousis
- Pharma Research and Early Development, Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche, Ltd., Basel, Switzerland
| | | | - Thirumalesh Mb
- GROW Laboratory, Narayana Nethralaya Foundation, Bengaluru, India
| | - Pamela Strassburger
- Pharma Research and Early Development, Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche, Ltd., Basel, Switzerland
| | - Gabriella Widmer
- Pharma Research and Early Development, Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche, Ltd., Basel, Switzerland
| | - Eleonora M Lad
- Department of Ophthalmology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Patrice E Fort
- Kellogg Eye Center, University of Michigan School of Medicine, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - José-Alain Sahel
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
- Institut De La Vision, INSERM, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
| | - J Samuel Zigler
- Wilmer Eye Institute, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | | | - Peter D Westenskow
- Pharma Research and Early Development, Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche, Ltd., Basel, Switzerland
| | - Alan D Proia
- Department of Pathology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Pathology, Campbell University Jerry M. Wallace School of Osteopathic Medicine, Lillington, North Carolina, USA
| | - Akrit Sodhi
- Wilmer Eye Institute, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Arkasubhra Ghosh
- GROW Laboratory, Narayana Nethralaya Foundation, Bengaluru, India
| | - Derrick Feenstra
- Pharma Research and Early Development, Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche, Ltd., Basel, Switzerland
| | - Debasish Sinha
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
- Wilmer Eye Institute, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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2
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Gray LT, Raczy MM, Briquez PS, Marchell TM, Alpar AT, Wallace RP, Volpatti LR, Sasso MS, Cao S, Nguyen M, Mansurov A, Budina E, Watkins EA, Solanki A, Mitrousis N, Reda JW, Yu SS, Tremain AC, Wang R, Nicolaescu V, Furlong K, Dvorkin S, Manicassamy B, Randall G, Wilson DS, Kwissa M, Swartz MA, Hubbell JA. Generation of potent cellular and humoral immunity against SARS-CoV-2 antigens via conjugation to a polymeric glyco-adjuvant. Biomaterials 2021; 278:121159. [PMID: 34634664 PMCID: PMC8482845 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2021.121159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2021] [Revised: 09/20/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The SARS-CoV-2 virus has caused an unprecedented global crisis, and curtailing its spread requires an effective vaccine which elicits a diverse and robust immune response. We have previously shown that vaccines made of a polymeric glyco-adjuvant conjugated to an antigen were effective in triggering such a response in other disease models and hypothesized that the technology could be adapted to create an effective vaccine against SARS-CoV-2. The core of the vaccine platform is the copolymer p(Man-TLR7), composed of monomers with pendant mannose or a toll-like receptor 7 (TLR7) agonist. Thus, p(Man-TLR7) is designed to target relevant antigen-presenting cells (APCs) via mannose-binding receptors and then activate TLR7 upon endocytosis. The p(Man-TLR7) construct is amenable to conjugation to protein antigens such as the Spike protein of SARS-CoV-2, yielding Spike-p(Man-TLR7). Here, we demonstrate Spike-p(Man-TLR7) vaccination elicits robust antigen-specific cellular and humoral responses in mice. In adult and elderly wild-type mice, vaccination with Spike-p(Man-TLR7) generates high and long-lasting titers of anti-Spike IgGs, with neutralizing titers exceeding levels in convalescent human serum. Interestingly, adsorbing Spike-p(Man-TLR7) to the depot-forming adjuvant alum amplified the broadly neutralizing humoral responses to levels matching those in mice vaccinated with formulations based off of clinically-approved adjuvants. Additionally, we observed an increase in germinal center B cells, antigen-specific antibody secreting cells, activated T follicular helper cells, and polyfunctional Th1-cytokine producing CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. We conclude that Spike-p(Man-TLR7) is an attractive, next-generation subunit vaccine candidate, capable of inducing durable and robust antibody and T cell responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura T Gray
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, United States
| | - Michal M Raczy
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, United States
| | - Priscilla S Briquez
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, United States
| | - Tiffany M Marchell
- Committee on Immunology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, United States
| | - Aaron T Alpar
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, United States
| | - Rachel P Wallace
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, United States
| | - Lisa R Volpatti
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, United States
| | - Maria Stella Sasso
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, United States
| | - Shijie Cao
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, United States
| | - Mindy Nguyen
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, United States
| | - Aslan Mansurov
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, United States
| | - Erica Budina
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, United States
| | - Elyse A Watkins
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, United States
| | - Ani Solanki
- Animal Resources Center, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, United States
| | - Nikolaos Mitrousis
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, United States
| | - Joseph W Reda
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, United States
| | - Shann S Yu
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, United States
| | - Andrew C Tremain
- Committee on Immunology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, United States
| | - Ruyi Wang
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, United States
| | - Vlad Nicolaescu
- Department of Microbiology, Howard T. Ricketts Laboratory, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, United States
| | - Kevin Furlong
- Department of Microbiology, Howard T. Ricketts Laboratory, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, United States
| | - Steve Dvorkin
- Department of Microbiology, Howard T. Ricketts Laboratory, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, United States
| | - Balaji Manicassamy
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, 52242, United States
| | - Glenn Randall
- Department of Microbiology, Howard T. Ricketts Laboratory, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, United States
| | - D Scott Wilson
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, United States; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21231, United States
| | - Marcin Kwissa
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, United States
| | - Melody A Swartz
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, United States; Committee on Immunology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, United States; Committee on Cancer Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, United States; Ben May Department of Cancer Research, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, United States.
| | - Jeffrey A Hubbell
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, United States; Committee on Immunology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, United States; Committee on Cancer Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, United States.
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3
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Volpatti LR, Wallace RP, Cao S, Raczy MM, Wang R, Gray LT, Alpar AT, Briquez PS, Mitrousis N, Marchell TM, Sasso MS, Nguyen M, Mansurov A, Budina E, Solanki A, Watkins EA, Schnorenberg MR, Tremain AC, Reda JW, Nicolaescu V, Furlong K, Dvorkin S, Yu SS, Manicassamy B, LaBelle JL, Tirrell MV, Randall G, Kwissa M, Swartz MA, Hubbell JA. Polymersomes Decorated with the SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein Receptor-Binding Domain Elicit Robust Humoral and Cellular Immunity. ACS Cent Sci 2021; 7:1368-1380. [PMID: 34466656 PMCID: PMC8315245 DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.1c00596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic underscores the need for rapid, safe, and effective vaccines. In contrast to some traditional vaccines, nanoparticle-based subunit vaccines are particularly efficient in trafficking antigens to lymph nodes, where they induce potent immune cell activation. Here, we developed a strategy to decorate the surface of oxidation-sensitive polymersomes with multiple copies of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein receptor-binding domain (RBD) to mimic the physical form of a virus particle. We evaluated the vaccination efficacy of these surface-decorated polymersomes (RBDsurf) in mice compared to RBD-encapsulated polymersomes (RBDencap) and unformulated RBD (RBDfree), using monophosphoryl-lipid-A-encapsulated polymersomes (MPLA PS) as an adjuvant. While all three groups produced high titers of RBD-specific IgG, only RBDsurf elicited a neutralizing antibody response to SARS-CoV-2 comparable to that of human convalescent plasma. Moreover, RBDsurf was the only group to significantly increase the proportion of RBD-specific germinal center B cells in the vaccination-site draining lymph nodes. Both RBDsurf and RBDencap drove similarly robust CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses that produced multiple Th1-type cytokines. We conclude that a multivalent surface display of spike RBD on polymersomes promotes a potent neutralizing antibody response to SARS-CoV-2, while both antigen formulations promote robust T cell immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa R. Volpatti
- Pritzker
School of Molecular Engineering, University
of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Rachel P. Wallace
- Pritzker
School of Molecular Engineering, University
of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Shijie Cao
- Pritzker
School of Molecular Engineering, University
of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Michal M. Raczy
- Pritzker
School of Molecular Engineering, University
of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Ruyi Wang
- Pritzker
School of Molecular Engineering, University
of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Laura T. Gray
- Pritzker
School of Molecular Engineering, University
of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Aaron T. Alpar
- Pritzker
School of Molecular Engineering, University
of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Priscilla S. Briquez
- Pritzker
School of Molecular Engineering, University
of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Nikolaos Mitrousis
- Pritzker
School of Molecular Engineering, University
of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Tiffany M. Marchell
- Committee
on Immunology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Maria Stella Sasso
- Pritzker
School of Molecular Engineering, University
of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Mindy Nguyen
- Pritzker
School of Molecular Engineering, University
of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Aslan Mansurov
- Pritzker
School of Molecular Engineering, University
of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Erica Budina
- Pritzker
School of Molecular Engineering, University
of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Ani Solanki
- Animal
Resources Center, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Elyse A. Watkins
- Pritzker
School of Molecular Engineering, University
of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Mathew R. Schnorenberg
- Pritzker
School of Molecular Engineering, University
of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Andrew C. Tremain
- Committee
on Immunology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Joseph W. Reda
- Pritzker
School of Molecular Engineering, University
of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Vlad Nicolaescu
- Department
of Microbiology, Howard T. Ricketts Laboratory, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Kevin Furlong
- Department
of Microbiology, Howard T. Ricketts Laboratory, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Steve Dvorkin
- Department
of Microbiology, Howard T. Ricketts Laboratory, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Shann S. Yu
- Pritzker
School of Molecular Engineering, University
of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Balaji Manicassamy
- Department
of Microbiology and Immunology, University
of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United
States
| | - James L. LaBelle
- Department
of Pediatrics, University of Chicago Comer
Children’s Hospital, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Matthew V. Tirrell
- Pritzker
School of Molecular Engineering, University
of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
- Materials
Science Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Glenn Randall
- Department
of Microbiology, Howard T. Ricketts Laboratory, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Marcin Kwissa
- Pritzker
School of Molecular Engineering, University
of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Melody A. Swartz
- Pritzker
School of Molecular Engineering, University
of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
- Committee
on Immunology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
- Ben
May Department of Cancer Research, University
of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
- Committee
on Cancer Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Jeffrey A. Hubbell
- Pritzker
School of Molecular Engineering, University
of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
- Committee
on Immunology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
- Committee
on Cancer Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
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4
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Volpatti LR, Wallace RP, Cao S, Raczy MM, Wang R, Gray LT, Alpar AT, Briquez PS, Mitrousis N, Marchell TM, Sasso MS, Nguyen M, Mansurov A, Budina E, Solanki A, Watkins EA, Schnorenberg MR, Tremain AC, Reda JW, Nicolaescu V, Furlong K, Dvorkin S, Yu SS, Manicassamy B, LaBelle JL, Tirrell MV, Randall G, Kwissa M, Swartz MA, Hubbell JA. Polymersomes decorated with SARS-CoV-2 spike protein receptor binding domain elicit robust humoral and cellular immunity. bioRxiv 2021:2021.04.08.438884. [PMID: 33851166 PMCID: PMC8043456 DOI: 10.1101/2021.04.08.438884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
A diverse portfolio of SARS-CoV-2 vaccine candidates is needed to combat the evolving COVID-19 pandemic. Here, we developed a subunit nanovaccine by conjugating SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein receptor binding domain (RBD) to the surface of oxidation-sensitive polymersomes. We evaluated the humoral and cellular responses of mice immunized with these surface-decorated polymersomes (RBDsurf) compared to RBD-encapsulated polymersomes (RBDencap) and unformulated RBD (RBDfree), using monophosphoryl lipid A-encapsulated polymersomes (MPLA PS) as an adjuvant. While all three groups produced high titers of RBD-specific IgG, only RBDsurf elicited a neutralizing antibody response to SARS-CoV-2 comparable to that of human convalescent plasma. Moreover, RBDsurf was the only group to significantly increase the proportion of RBD-specific germinal center B cells in the vaccination-site draining lymph nodes. Both RBDsurf and RBDencap drove similarly robust CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses that produced multiple Th1-type cytokines. We conclude that multivalent surface display of Spike RBD on polymersomes promotes a potent neutralizing antibody response to SARS-CoV-2, while both antigen formulations promote robust T cell immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa R. Volpatti
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
| | - Rachel P. Wallace
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
| | - Shijie Cao
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
| | - Michal M. Raczy
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
| | - Ruyi Wang
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
| | - Laura T. Gray
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
| | - Aaron T. Alpar
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
| | - Priscilla S. Briquez
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
| | - Nikolaos Mitrousis
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
| | - Tiffany M. Marchell
- Committee on Immunology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
| | - Maria Stella Sasso
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
| | - Mindy Nguyen
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
| | - Aslan Mansurov
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
| | - Erica Budina
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
| | - Ani Solanki
- Animal Resources Center, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
| | - Elyse A. Watkins
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
| | - Mathew R. Schnorenberg
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
| | - Andrew C. Tremain
- Committee on Immunology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
| | - Joseph W. Reda
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
| | - Vlad Nicolaescu
- Department of Microbiology, Howard T. Ricketts Laboratory, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
| | - Kevin Furlong
- Department of Microbiology, Howard T. Ricketts Laboratory, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
| | - Steve Dvorkin
- Department of Microbiology, Howard T. Ricketts Laboratory, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
| | - Shann S. Yu
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
| | - Balaji Manicassamy
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, United States
| | - James L. LaBelle
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Chicago Comer Children’s Hospital, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
| | - Matthew V. Tirrell
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
- Materials Science Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, IL 60439, United States
| | - Glenn Randall
- Department of Microbiology, Howard T. Ricketts Laboratory, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
| | - Marcin Kwissa
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
- Department of Microbiology, Howard T. Ricketts Laboratory, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
| | - Melody A. Swartz
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
- Committee on Immunology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
- Ben May Department of Cancer Research, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
- Committee on Cancer Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
| | - Jeffrey A. Hubbell
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
- Committee on Immunology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
- Committee on Cancer Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
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5
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Sasso MS, Mitrousis N, Wang Y, Briquez PS, Hauert S, Ishihara J, Hubbell JA, Swartz MA. Lymphangiogenesis-inducing vaccines elicit potent and long-lasting T cell immunity against melanomas. Sci Adv 2021; 7:eabe4362. [PMID: 33762337 PMCID: PMC7990326 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abe4362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2020] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
In melanoma, the induction of lymphatic growth (lymphangiogenesis) has long been correlated with metastasis and poor prognosis, but we recently showed it can synergistically enhance cancer immunotherapy and boost T cell immunity. Here, we develop a translational approach for exploiting this "lymphangiogenic potentiation" of immunotherapy in a cancer vaccine using lethally irradiated tumor cells overexpressing vascular endothelial growth factor C (VEGF-C) and topical adjuvants. Our "VEGFC vax" induced extensive local lymphangiogenesis and promoted stronger T cell activation in both the intradermal vaccine site and draining lymph nodes, resulting in higher frequencies of antigen-specific T cells present systemically than control vaccines. In mouse melanoma models, VEGFC vax elicited potent tumor-specific T cell immunity and provided effective tumor control and long-term immunological memory. Together, these data introduce the potential of lymphangiogenesis induction as a novel immunotherapeutic strategy to consider in cancer vaccine design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Stella Sasso
- Pritzker School for Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.
| | - Nikolaos Mitrousis
- Pritzker School for Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Yue Wang
- Pritzker School for Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Priscilla S Briquez
- Pritzker School for Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Sylvie Hauert
- Pritzker School for Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Jun Ishihara
- Pritzker School for Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Jeffrey A Hubbell
- Pritzker School for Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Melody A Swartz
- Pritzker School for Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.
- Ben May Department for Cancer Research, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
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6
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Mitrousis N, Sasso MS, Weichselbaum RR, Hubbell JA, Swartz MA. Abstract 2253: Lymphangiogenesis augments the anti-tumor efficacy of radiotherapy in mouse melanoma. Cancer Res 2020. [DOI: 10.1158/1538-7445.am2020-2253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Radiotherapy (RT) constitutes a significant component of cancer therapy in the clinic, with approximately 50% of all cancer patients receiving treatment over the course of their disease. In addition to acting as a DNA-damaging agent, RT leads to the release of tumor antigens, damage-associated molecular patterns, and cytokines, a process termed immunogenic cell death. This phenomenon triggers the initiation of anti-tumor immune responses, which have been shown to be essential for the complete therapeutic response to RT. Despite its diverse mechanisms of action and broad applicability, RT does not typically lead to curative responses and combinations with other treatment modalities such as immunotherapy are being explored to improve efficacy. Our laboratory and others have previously established that tumor-associated lymphatics can actively modulate anti-tumor immune responses and potentiate immunotherapy. Here, we asked whether lymphangiogenesis influences the immune response and anti-tumor efficacy elicited by RT. We employed two variants of the aggressive B16F10 melanoma model: a variant that was transduced to overexpress the lymphangiogenic factor VEGF-C (B16-VEGF-C), and a mock-transduced (B16-ctrl) variant. Tumor-bearing animals were treated by ablative doses of localized RT and monitored for tumor growth and survival, while anti-tumor immune responses were assessed by flow cytometry and ELISA. We observed that the therapeutic efficacy of RT was greater in B16-VEGF-C melanomas compared to B16-ctrl, as evidenced by a significant inhibition of tumor growth and extended animal survival. In line with this finding, B16-VEGF-C melanomas exhibited a significantly higher CD8+ T cell infiltration and activation upon ex vivo restimulation after RT. These responses were partially inhibited by a function-blocking antibody of the main VEGF-C receptor, VEGFR3. To gain further insight, we assessed the tumor infiltration and activation status of antigen-presenting cells. Consistent with the observed T cell response, we found that both dendritic cells and macrophages exhibited a greater expression of co-stimulatory molecules in B16-VEGF-C melanomas after RT. Together, our findings demonstrate that lymhangiogenesis may be a key contributing factor underlying tumor responsiveness to RT.
Citation Format: Nikolaos Mitrousis, Maria Stella Sasso, Ralph R. Weichselbaum, Jeffrey A. Hubbell, Melody A. Swartz. Lymphangiogenesis augments the anti-tumor efficacy of radiotherapy in mouse melanoma [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research 2020; 2020 Apr 27-28 and Jun 22-24. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2020;80(16 Suppl):Abstract nr 2253.
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Sasso MS, Mitrousis N, Hauert S, Briquez PS, Wang Y, Ishihara J, Hubbell JA, Swartz MA. Abstract 1072: Lymphangiogenesis-inducing vaccines for melanoma treatment elicit potent tumor-specific T cell immunity and long-term tumor control. Cancer Res 2020. [DOI: 10.1158/1538-7445.am2020-1072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
We recently demonstrated that the growth of tumor-associated lymphatic vessels (lymphangiogenesis) promotes immune infiltration in melanoma (Lund et al. 2016) and increases T cell activation following immunotherapy, resulting in strongly enhanced therapeutic efficacy (Fankhauser et a. 2017). On the other hand, tumor lymphangiogenesis is known to support cancer cell dissemination through the lymphatic route and metastasis formation. Therefore, inducing lymphangiogesis within the tumor site to boost anti-tumor immunity appears as a potentially unsafe therapeutic approach since it might also result in increased tumor metastatic potential. In this study, we sought to exploit the immune-promoting functions of lymphatics remotely from the tumor by developing a lymphangiogenesis-inducing cancer vaccine that mimics the microenvironment of a lymphangiogenic tumor. Whole-cell lymphangiogenic vaccines were generated using lethally irradiated mouse melanoma cells genetically engineered to overexpress the lymphatic-specific growth factor VEGFC, in combination with topical immune adjuvants (VEGFC vax). VEGFC vax was compared to control vaccines with identical formulation but lacking VEGFC overexpression and to a vaccine composed of GM-CSF-overexpressing tumor cells (GVAX), a vaccination approach that has been widely used in clinical studies. Upon intradermal injection in mice, VEGFC vax induced extensive lymphangiogenesis at the vaccine site and increased antigen transport to vaccine-draining lymph nodes. Analogously to what observed in lymphangiogenic tumors, we found that naïve T cells significantly infiltrated lymphangiogenic vaccine sites and could undergo in situ priming and activation. Using VEGFC vaccines containing either B16-F10 mouse melanoma cells or melanoma cells obtained from tumors growing in BrafV600EPten−/- transgenic mice, we demonstrated that VEGFC vax elicits a potent tumor-specific T cell response. Importantly, VEGFC vaccination resulted in the mounting of a broad T cell immunity directed against multiple B16-F10-associated antigens. In both prophylactic and therapeutic settings, VEGFC vax provided effective tumor control and long-term protection against B16-F10 melanomas. In the present study we introduced for the first time the concept of lymphangenesis induction as a tool to increase cancer vaccine potency and we provided a proof of efficacy of lymphangiogenic vaccines in preclinical melanoma models.
Citation Format: Maria Stella Sasso, Nikolaos Mitrousis, Sylvie Hauert, Priscilla S. Briquez, Yue Wang, Jun Ishihara, Jeffrey A. Hubbell, Melody A. Swartz. Lymphangiogenesis-inducing vaccines for melanoma treatment elicit potent tumor-specific T cell immunity and long-term tumor control [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research 2020; 2020 Apr 27-28 and Jun 22-24. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2020;80(16 Suppl):Abstract nr 1072.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Yue Wang
- University of Chicago, Chicago, IL
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Mitrousis N, Sasso MS, Weichselbaum RR, Hubbell JA, Swartz MA. Abstract B93: Tumor lymphangiogenesis improves responsiveness to radiotherapy in mouse melanoma. Cancer Immunol Res 2020. [DOI: 10.1158/2326-6074.tumimm19-b93] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Radiotherapy (RT) constitutes a significant component of clinically used cancer therapy, with approximately 50% of all cancer patients receiving treatment over the course of their disease. RT is known to induce immunogenic cell death of tumor cells, leading to the release of tumor antigens, damage-associated molecular patterns, and other tumor-resident components such as cytokines. This phenomenon drives the initiation of antigen-specific immune responses, which have been shown to be essential for the complete response to RT. Notwithstanding its broad applicability and diverse mechanisms of action, RT does not usually lead to curative responses and combinations with other treatment modalities are needed to improve efficacy. Our laboratory and others have previously demonstrated that tumor-associated lymphatics can actively influence antitumor immune responses and potentiate immunotherapy. Here, we investigate whether lymphangiogenesis influences the antitumor efficacy and immune response elicited by RT. We employed the aggressive B16F10 melanoma model, that was either transduced to overexpress the lymphangiogenic factor VEGF-C (B16-VEGF-C) or mock-transduced (B16-ctrl). Tumor-bearing animals were treated by ablative localized RT and monitored for tumor growth and survival, while antitumor immune responses were assessed by flow cytometry and ELISA. We found that the therapeutic response to RT was stronger in B16-VEGF-C melanomas compared to B16-ctrl, as evidenced by a significant delay in tumor growth and prolonged animal survival. In agreement with this finding, B16-VEGF-C melanomas exhibited a significantly greater CD8+ T-cell infiltration and activation upon ex vivo restimulation after RT. These responses were partially inhibited by a function-blocking antibody of the main VEGF-C receptor, VEGFR3. Together, our findings demonstrate that lymhangiogenesis may be a key contributing factor underlying tumor responsiveness to RT.
Citation Format: Nikolaos Mitrousis, Maria Stella Sasso, Ralph R. Weichselbaum, Jeffrey A. Hubbell, Melody A. Swartz. Tumor lymphangiogenesis improves responsiveness to radiotherapy in mouse melanoma [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the AACR Special Conference on Tumor Immunology and Immunotherapy; 2019 Nov 17-20; Boston, MA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Immunol Res 2020;8(3 Suppl):Abstract nr B93.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolaos Mitrousis
- 1Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL,
| | - Maria Stella Sasso
- 1Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL,
| | | | - Jeffrey A. Hubbell
- 1Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL,
| | - Melody A. Swartz
- 1Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL,
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Baker AEG, Bahlmann LC, Tam RY, Liu JC, Ganesh AN, Mitrousis N, Marcellus R, Spears M, Bartlett JMS, Cescon DW, Bader GD, Shoichet MS. Benchmarking to the Gold Standard: Hyaluronan-Oxime Hydrogels Recapitulate Xenograft Models with In Vitro Breast Cancer Spheroid Culture. Adv Mater 2019; 31:e1901166. [PMID: 31322299 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201901166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2019] [Revised: 06/28/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Many 3D in vitro models induce breast cancer spheroid formation; however, this alone does not recapitulate the complex in vivo phenotype. To effectively screen therapeutics, it is urgently needed to validate in vitro cancer spheroid models against the gold standard of xenografts. A new oxime-crosslinked hyaluronan (HA) hydrogel is designed, manipulating gelation rate and mechanical properties to grow breast cancer spheroids in 3D. This HA-oxime breast cancer model maintains the gene expression profile most similar to that of tumor xenografts based on a pan-cancer gene expression profile (comprising 730 genes) of three different human breast cancer subtypes compared to Matrigel or conventional 2D culture. Differences in gene expression between breast cancer cultures in HA-oxime versus Matrigel or 2D are confirmed for 12 canonical pathways by gene set variation analysis. Importantly, drug response is dependent on the culture method. Breast cancer cells respond better to the Rac inhibitor (EHT-1864) and the PI3K inhibitor (AZD6482) when cultured in HA-oxime versus Matrigel. This study demonstrates the superiority of an HA-based hydrogel as a platform for in vitro breast cancer culture of both primary, patient-derived cells and cell lines, and provides a hydrogel culture model that closely matches that in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander E G Baker
- The Donnelly Centre, University of Toronto, Toronto, 160 College St, Ontario, M5S 3E1, Canada
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, 200 College Street, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3E5, Canada
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, 164 College Street, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3G9, Canada
| | - Laura C Bahlmann
- The Donnelly Centre, University of Toronto, Toronto, 160 College St, Ontario, M5S 3E1, Canada
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, 164 College Street, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3G9, Canada
| | - Roger Y Tam
- The Donnelly Centre, University of Toronto, Toronto, 160 College St, Ontario, M5S 3E1, Canada
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, 200 College Street, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3E5, Canada
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, 164 College Street, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3G9, Canada
| | - Jeffrey C Liu
- The Donnelly Centre, University of Toronto, Toronto, 160 College St, Ontario, M5S 3E1, Canada
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, 164 College Street, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3G9, Canada
| | - Ahil N Ganesh
- The Donnelly Centre, University of Toronto, Toronto, 160 College St, Ontario, M5S 3E1, Canada
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, 200 College Street, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3E5, Canada
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, 164 College Street, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3G9, Canada
| | - Nikolaos Mitrousis
- The Donnelly Centre, University of Toronto, Toronto, 160 College St, Ontario, M5S 3E1, Canada
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, 164 College Street, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3G9, Canada
| | - Richard Marcellus
- Ontario Institute for Cancer Research, MaRS Centre, 661 University Avenue, Toronto, Ontario, M5G 0A3, Canada
| | - Melanie Spears
- Ontario Institute for Cancer Research, MaRS Centre, 661 University Avenue, Toronto, Ontario, M5G 0A3, Canada
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Toronto, 1 King's College Circle, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - John M S Bartlett
- Ontario Institute for Cancer Research, MaRS Centre, 661 University Avenue, Toronto, Ontario, M5G 0A3, Canada
| | - David W Cescon
- Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, University Health Network, 610 University Ave., Toronto, Ontario, M5G 2C1, Canada
| | - Gary D Bader
- The Donnelly Centre, University of Toronto, Toronto, 160 College St, Ontario, M5S 3E1, Canada
| | - Molly S Shoichet
- The Donnelly Centre, University of Toronto, Toronto, 160 College St, Ontario, M5S 3E1, Canada
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, 200 College Street, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3E5, Canada
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, 164 College Street, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3G9, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3H6, Canada
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Parker J, Mitrousis N, Shoichet MS. Hydrogel for Simultaneous Tunable Growth Factor Delivery and Enhanced Viability of Encapsulated Cells in Vitro. Biomacromolecules 2016; 17:476-84. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.5b01366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- James Parker
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
- Donnelly
Centre, University of Toronto, 160 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3E1, Canada
| | - Nikolaos Mitrousis
- Donnelly
Centre, University of Toronto, 160 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3E1, Canada
- Institute
of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, 164 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G9, Canada
| | - Molly S. Shoichet
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
- Donnelly
Centre, University of Toronto, 160 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3E1, Canada
- Institute
of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, 164 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G9, Canada
- Department
of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, 200 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3E1, Canada
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Abstract
The process of neurogenesis, through which the entire nervous system of an organism is formed, has attracted immense scientific attention for decades. How can a single neural stem cell give rise to astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and neurons? Furthermore, how is a neuron led to choose between the hundreds of different neuronal subtypes that the vertebrate CNS contains? Traditionally, niche signals and transcription factors have been on the spotlight. Recent research is increasingly demonstrating that the answer may partially lie in epigenetic regulation of gene expression. In this article, we comprehensively review the role of post-translational histone modifications in neurogenesis in both the embryonic and adult CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolaos Mitrousis
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Vincent Tropepe
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, Centre for the Analysis of Genome Evolution and Function, University of Toronto Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Ola Hermanson
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet Stockholm, Sweden
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Tam RY, Fuehrmann T, Mitrousis N, Shoichet MS. Regenerative therapies for central nervous system diseases: a biomaterials approach. Neuropsychopharmacology 2014; 39:169-88. [PMID: 24002187 PMCID: PMC3857664 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2013.237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 172] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2013] [Revised: 07/09/2013] [Accepted: 07/12/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The central nervous system (CNS) has a limited capacity to spontaneously regenerate following traumatic injury or disease, requiring innovative strategies to promote tissue and functional repair. Tissue regeneration strategies, such as cell and/or drug delivery, have demonstrated promising results in experimental animal models, but have been difficult to translate clinically. The efficacy of cell therapy, which involves stem cell transplantation into the CNS to replace damaged tissue, has been limited due to low cell survival and integration upon transplantation, while delivery of therapeutic molecules to the CNS using conventional methods, such as oral and intravenous administration, have been limited by diffusion across the blood-brain/spinal cord-barrier. The use of biomaterials to promote graft survival and integration as well as localized and sustained delivery of biologics to CNS injury sites is actively being pursued. This review will highlight recent advances using biomaterials as cell- and drug-delivery vehicles for CNS repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roger Y Tam
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, Toronto, ON, Canada,Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Tobias Fuehrmann
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, Toronto, ON, Canada,Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Nikolaos Mitrousis
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Molly S Shoichet
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, Toronto, ON, Canada,Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, Toronto, ON, Canada,Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada,Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, 160 College Street, Room 514, Toronto, ON, Canada, Tel: +416 978 1460, Fax: +416 978 4317, E-mail:
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