1
|
Vaknin Y, Shaar R, Lipschits O, Eliyahu Behar A, Maeir AM, Ben-Yosef E. Applying thermal demagnetization to archaeological materials: A tool for detecting burnt clay and estimating its firing temperature. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0289424. [PMID: 37812593 PMCID: PMC10561874 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0289424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2022] [Accepted: 07/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Burnt materials are very common in the archaeological record. Their identification and the reconstruction of their firing history are crucial for reliable archaeological interpretations. Commonly used methods are limited in their ability to identify and estimate heating temperatures below ~500⁰C and cannot reconstruct the orientation in which these materials were burnt. Stepwise thermal demagnetization is widely used in archaeomagnetism, but its use for identifying burnt materials and reconstructing paleotemperatures requires further experimental verification. Here we present an experimental test that has indicated that this method is useful for identifying the firing of mud bricks to 190⁰C or higher. Application of the method to oriented samples also enables reconstruction of the position in which they cooled down. Our algorithm for interpreting thermal demagnetization results was tested on 49 miniature sun-dried "mud bricks", 46 of which were heated to a range of temperatures between 100⁰C to 700⁰C under a controlled magnetic field and three "bricks" which were not heated and used as a control group. The results enabled distinguishing between unheated material and material heated to at least 190⁰C and accurately recovering the minimum heating temperature of the latter. Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) on the same materials demonstrated how the two methods complement each other. We implemented the thermal demagnetization method on burnt materials from an Iron Age structure at Tell es-Safi/Gath (central Israel), which led to a revision of the previously published understanding of this archaeological context. We demonstrated that the conflagration occurred within the structure, and not only in its vicinity as previously suggested. We also showed that a previously published hypothesis that bricks were fired in a kiln prior to construction is very unlikely. Finally, we conclude that the destruction of the structure occurred in a single event and not in stages over several decades.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yoav Vaknin
- Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- Institute of Earth Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Ron Shaar
- Institute of Earth Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Oded Lipschits
- Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Adi Eliyahu Behar
- The Department of Land of Israel Studies and Archaeology and the Department of Chemical Sciences, Ariel University, Ariel, Israel
| | - Aren M. Maeir
- The Institute of Archaeology, The Martin (Szusz) Department of Land of Israel Studies and Archaeology, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel
| | - Erez Ben-Yosef
- Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Vaknin Y, Shaar R, Lipschits O, Mazar A, Maeir AM, Garfinkel Y, Freud L, Faust A, Tappy RE, Kreimerman I, Ganor S, Covello-Paran K, Sergi O, Herzog Z, Arav R, Lederman Z, Münger S, Fantalkin A, Gitin S, Ben-Yosef E. Reconstructing biblical military campaigns using geomagnetic field data. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:e2209117119. [PMID: 36279453 PMCID: PMC9636932 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2209117119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2022] [Accepted: 08/31/2022] [Indexed: 10/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The Hebrew Bible and other ancient Near Eastern texts describe Egyptian, Aramean, Assyrian, and Babylonian military campaigns to the Southern Levant during the 10th to sixth centuries BCE. Indeed, many destruction layers dated to this period have been unearthed in archaeological excavations. Several of these layers are securely linked to specific campaigns and are widely accepted as chronological anchors. However, the dating of many other destruction layers is often debated, challenging the ability to accurately reconstruct the different military campaigns and raising questions regarding the historicity of the biblical narrative. Here, we present a synchronization of the historically dated chronological anchors and other destruction layers and artifacts using the direction and/or intensity of the ancient geomagnetic field recorded in mud bricks from 20 burnt destruction layers and in two ceramic assemblages. During the period in question, the geomagnetic field in this region was extremely anomalous with rapid changes and high-intensity values, including spikes of more than twice the intensity of today's field. The data are useful in the effort to pinpoint these short-term variations on the timescale, and they resolve chronological debates regarding the campaigns against the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, the relationship between the two kingdoms, and their administrations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yoav Vaknin
- Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
- Institute of Earth Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 9190401, Israel
| | - Ron Shaar
- Institute of Earth Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 9190401, Israel
| | - Oded Lipschits
- Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Amihai Mazar
- Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 9190501, Israel
| | - Aren M. Maeir
- Institute of Archaeology, The Martin (Szusz) Department of Land of Israel Studies and Archaeology, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 590002, Israel
| | - Yosef Garfinkel
- Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 9190501, Israel
| | - Liora Freud
- Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Avraham Faust
- Department of General History, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 590002, Israel
| | - Ron E. Tappy
- Pittsburgh Theological Seminary, Pittsburgh, PA 15206
| | - Igor Kreimerman
- Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 9190501, Israel
| | - Saar Ganor
- Israel Antiquities Authority, Jerusalem 9100402, Israel
| | | | - Omer Sergi
- Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Zeev Herzog
- Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Rami Arav
- University of Nebraska Omaha, Omaha, NE 68182
| | - Zvi Lederman
- Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Stefan Münger
- Institute of Jewish Studies, University of Bern, Bern 3012, Switzerland
| | | | - Seymour Gitin
- W.F. Albright Institute of Archaeological Research, Jerusalem 9119002, Israel
| | - Erez Ben-Yosef
- Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Vaknin Y, Shaar R, Gadot Y, Shalev Y, Lipschits O, Ben-Yosef E. The Earth's magnetic field in Jerusalem during the Babylonian destruction: A unique reference for field behavior and an anchor for archaeomagnetic dating. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0237029. [PMID: 32764793 PMCID: PMC7413505 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0237029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2020] [Accepted: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Paleomagnetic analysis of archaeological materials is crucial for understanding the behavior of the geomagnetic field in the past. As it is often difficult to accurately date the acquisition of magnetic information recorded in archaeological materials, large age uncertainties and discrepancies are common in archaeomagnetic datasets, limiting the ability to use these data for geomagnetic modeling and archaeomagnetic dating. Here we present an accurately dated reconstruction of the intensity and direction of the field in Jerusalem in August, 586 BCE, the date of the city's destruction by fire by the Babylonian army, which marks the end of the Iron Age in the Levant. We analyzed 54 floor segments, of unprecedented construction quality, unearthed within a large monumental structure that had served as an elite or public building and collapsed during the conflagration. From the reconstructed paleomagnetic directions, we conclude that the tilted floor segments had originally been part of the floor of the second story of the building and cooled after they had collapsed. This firmly connects the time of the magnetic acquisition to the date of the destruction. The relatively high field intensity, corresponding to virtual axial dipole moment (VADM) of 148.9 ± 3.9 ZAm2, accompanied by a geocentric axial dipole (GAD) inclination and a positive declination of 8.3°, suggests instability of the field during the 6th century BCE and redefines the duration of the Levantine Iron Age Anomaly. The narrow dating of the geomagnetic reconstruction enabled us to constrain the age of other Iron Age finds and resolve a long archaeological and historical discussion regarding the role and dating of royal Judean stamped jar handles. This demonstrates how archaeomagnetic data derived from historically-dated destructions can serve as an anchor for archaeomagnetic dating and its particular potency for periods in which radiocarbon is not adequate for high resolution dating.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yoav Vaknin
- Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- Institute of Earth Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
- * E-mail:
| | - Ron Shaar
- Institute of Earth Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Yuval Gadot
- Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | | | - Oded Lipschits
- Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Erez Ben-Yosef
- Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Ben-Yosef E, Millman M, Shaar R, Tauxe L, Lipschits O. Six centuries of geomagnetic intensity variations recorded by royal Judean stamped jar handles. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:2160-2165. [PMID: 28193874 PMCID: PMC5338537 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1615797114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Earth's magnetic field, one of the most enigmatic physical phenomena of the planet, is constantly changing on various time scales, from decades to millennia and longer. The reconstruction of geomagnetic field behavior in periods predating direct observations with modern instrumentation is based on geological and archaeological materials and has the twin challenges of (i) the accuracy of ancient paleomagnetic estimates and (ii) the dating of the archaeological material. Here we address the latter by using a set of storage jar handles (fired clay) stamped by royal seals as part of the ancient administrative system in Judah (Jerusalem and its vicinity). The typology of the stamp impressions, which corresponds to changes in the political entities ruling this area, provides excellent age constraints for the firing event of these artifacts. Together with rigorous paleomagnetic experimental procedures, this study yielded an unparalleled record of the geomagnetic field intensity during the eighth to second centuries BCE. The new record constitutes a substantial advance in our knowledge of past geomagnetic field variations in the southern Levant. Although it demonstrates a relatively stable and gradually declining field during the sixth to second centuries BCE, the new record provides further support for a short interval of extreme high values during the late eighth century BCE. The rate of change during this "geomagnetic spike" [defined as virtual axial dipole moment > 160 ZAm2 (1021 Am2)] is further constrained by the new data, which indicate an extremely rapid weakening of the field (losing ∼27% of its strength over ca. 30 y).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Erez Ben-Yosef
- Department of Archaeology and Ancient Near Eastern Cultures, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel;
- Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Michael Millman
- Department of Archaeology and Ancient Near Eastern Cultures, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
- Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Ron Shaar
- The Institute of Earth Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91904, Israel
| | - Lisa Tauxe
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0220
| | - Oded Lipschits
- Department of Archaeology and Ancient Near Eastern Cultures, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
- Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| |
Collapse
|