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Etiang P, Atim SA, Nkamwesiga J, Nalumenya D, Byaruhanga C, Odongo S, Vudriko P, Ademun AR, Biryomumaisho S, Erume J, Masembe C, Thomson EC, Muhanguzi D, Tweyongyere R. Identification and distribution of Rhipicephalus microplus in selected high-cattle density districts in Uganda: signaling future demand for novel tick control approaches. BMC Vet Res 2024; 20:119. [PMID: 38528496 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-024-03979-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 03/27/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Canestrini, 1888), the Asian blue tick, is a highly invasive and adaptable ectoparasite. This tick species has successfully established itself in most regions of the world, with movement of cattle being a major driver for its spread. In the recent past, R. microplus ticks have been reported in three districts of Uganda. Information on its spread and distribution are vital in deepening our understanding of the ecological scenarios that lead to tick persistence and in the formulation of control strategies. This is especially important in the cattle-dense districts. METHODS We randomly collected tick specimens from 1,461cattle spread across seven cattle dense districts located in the Central, Karamoja and West Nile regions of Uganda from January to September 2020. The ticks were identified using standard morpho-taxonomic keys and the R. microplus tick species identities were confirmed by sequencing of the ITS2 region, 12S rRNA and 16S rRNA genes and phylogenetic analyses. RESULTS Adult ticks (n = 13,019) were collected from 1,461 cattle. Seventeen tick species were identified based on morpho-taxonomic keys and the majority (47.4%; n=6184) of these were R. appendiculatus. In total, 257 R. microplus ticks were found infesting cattle in 18 study sites in the districts of Amudat, Kaabong, Napak (Karamoja region) and Arua (West Nile region). The identity of R. microplus was confirmed using molecular technics. No R. microplus tick was recorded in the districts of Lyantonde and Nakaseke (Central region). Arua district accounted for 82.1% (n=211) of the R. microplus ticks recorded followed by Napak district at 16.3% (n=42), while Amudat and Kaabong districts accounted for 1.5% (n=4). Rhipicephalus microplus and R. decoloratus co-existed in 6 of the 13 study sites in Arua district, while in another 6 study sites, no R. decoloratus was recorded. In the Karamoja region districts R. decoloratus co-existed with R.microplus. Of the total 618 ticks belonging to four species of the subgenus Boophilus recorded in this study, R. decoloratus accounted for 50.04% (n=334), followed by R. microplus at 41.58% (n=257), R. geigyi at 2.75% (n=17) and R. annulatus at 1.61% (n=10). In the districts of Amudat, Kaabong and Napak, R. decoloratus was more dominant (76.1%; n=179) of the three Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) tick species recorded, followed by R. microplus (19.5%; n=46) and R. geigyi (4.2%; n=10). Contrariwise, R. microplus was more dominant (84%; n=211) in Arua district followed by R. decoloratus (10.7%; n=27), R. annulatus (3.9%; n=10) and R. geigyi (1.1%; n=3). Phylogenetic analyses of the ITS2 region, 12S rRNA and 16S rRNA genes revealed subgrouping of the obtained sequences with the previously published R. microplus sequences from other parts of the world. CONCLUSION Rhipicephalus microplus ticks were found infesting cattle in four districts of Uganda. The inability to find R. decoloratus, an indigenous tick, from six sites in the district of Arua is suggestive of its replacement by R. microplus. Rhipicephalus microplus negatively affects livestock production, and therefore, there is a need to determine its distribution and to deepen the understanding of the ecological factors that lead to its spread and persistence in an area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Etiang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity (COVAB), Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
- Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University, P.O. Box 236, Tororo, Uganda
| | - Stella A Atim
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity (COVAB), Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
- Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries, P.O. Box 102, Entebbe, Uganda
| | - Joseph Nkamwesiga
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity (COVAB), Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
| | - David Nalumenya
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity (COVAB), Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Charles Byaruhanga
- National Agricultural Research Organization, P.O. Box 259, Entebbe, Uganda
- Vectors and Vector-Borne Diseases Research Programme, Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X04, Onderstepoort, 0110, South Africa
| | - Steven Odongo
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity (COVAB), Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Patrick Vudriko
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity (COVAB), Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Anna Rose Ademun
- Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries, P.O. Box 102, Entebbe, Uganda
| | - Savino Biryomumaisho
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity (COVAB), Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Joseph Erume
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity (COVAB), Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Charles Masembe
- College of Natural Sciences (CONAS), Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Emma C Thomson
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research (CVR), Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Dennis Muhanguzi
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity (COVAB), Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Robert Tweyongyere
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity (COVAB), Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda.
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Tweyongyere R, Nkamwesiga J, Etiang P, Mugezi I, Wamala H, Wasswa AT, Kamusiime M, Ainebyoona S, Abizera H, Mwiine FN, Muhanguzi D. Seroprevalence of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) in cattle from Karamoja region, North-eastern Uganda. BMC Vet Res 2024; 20:97. [PMID: 38461244 PMCID: PMC10924401 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-024-03938-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2023] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 03/11/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia [CBPP] is a transboundary animal disease of cattle caused by Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides [Mmm]. CBPP causes severe economic losses to livestock producers in sub-Saharan Africa mainly due to high mortality, morbidity, reduction in productivity as well as livestock trade restrictions. This study aimed at determining seroprevalence of Mmm in cattle from Karamoja region, north-eastern Uganda; data that are required to design and implement risk based CBPP control program. METHODS We randomly collected blood samples from 2,300 cattle spread across Karamoja region. Serum was extracted and screened for antibodies against Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides [Mmm] using the competitive enzyme linked immunosorbent assay [cELISA]. RESULTS A quarter [25.4%; 95% CI: 23.7-27.3] of the screened cattle [n = 2,300] were sero-positive for Mmm. Amudat and Kaabong districts recorded the lowest [12.3%] and highest [30.7%] Mmm seroprevalence respectively. Increasing age, overnight stay in cattle kraals and location [certain districts, villages, herds and sub counties] of the cattle herds, the factors that promote animal commingling, were the most significant risk factors of seroconversion with Mmm. CONCLUSION Results from this study indicated a higher seroprevalence of Mmm in Karamoja region cattle herds. This could be due to the increased frequency of CBPP outbreaks in recent years. To be effective, CBPP vaccination programs should target high risk herds along the international borders and other hotspot areas [e.g., parishes or sub counties] where cattle commingling is high.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Tweyongyere
- College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, P.O.Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Joseph Nkamwesiga
- College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, P.O.Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Patrick Etiang
- Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University, P.O.Box 236, Tororo, Uganda
| | - Israel Mugezi
- Department of Animal Health, Ministry of Agriculture Animal Industry and Fisheries, P.O.Box 513, Entebbe, Uganda
- Department of Production, Trade and Tourism Planning, National Planning Authority, P.O.Box 21434, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Henry Wamala
- Mercy Corps Uganda, Clock Tower, P.O.Box 32021, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Auther Tamale Wasswa
- College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, P.O.Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
- Mercy Corps Uganda, Clock Tower, P.O.Box 32021, Kampala, Uganda
| | | | - Solomon Ainebyoona
- College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, P.O.Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Harriet Abizera
- College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, P.O.Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Frank Norbert Mwiine
- College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, P.O.Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Dennis Muhanguzi
- College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, P.O.Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda.
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Etiang P, Musoba A, Nalumenya D, Ndekezi C, Bbira J, Ochwo S, Tweyongyere R, Muhanguzi D. Distribution and prevalence of ixodid tick species (Acari: Ixodidae) infesting cattle in Karamoja region of northeastern Uganda. BMC Vet Res 2024; 20:50. [PMID: 38326882 PMCID: PMC10851484 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-023-03802-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2023] [Accepted: 11/01/2023] [Indexed: 02/09/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ticks and tick-borne diseases (TTBDs) are a significant threat to livestock production in sub-Saharan Africa. Transhumance pastoralism practiced in Karamoja region and other factors like cattle trade, communal grazing and the presence of wildlife predispose cattle to TTBDs. Tick species abundance and distribution data can be used as a tool for early disease diagnosis and inform tick control strategies. However, these data for north-eastern Uganda are currently limited; previous surveys were relatively localized and targeted fewer cattle kraals and numbers. METHODS We randomly collected tick specimens from 1,534 cattle spread across Karamoja region in both the peak month of the rainy (May 2020) and the dry (February2021) seasons. The ticks were identified using morpho-taxonomic keys and the tick species identities confirmed by the 16 S rRNA gene sequencing and phylogenetic analysis. RESULTS A collection of 18,637 ticks was examined and fifteen tick species from three genera (ten Rhipicephalus; three Amblyomma; two Hyalomma species) were identified. Rhipicephalus appendiculatus was the most dominant (37.9%) tick species, followed by Amblyomma variegatum (32.3%); A. lepidum (17.3%); R. evertsi evertsi (7.8%); and R. decoloratus (1.4%). Eight of these tick species were ubiquitous in the study districts while six were found in isolated areas. The peak month of the dry season collection was associated with a higher proportion of tick-infested cattle (91%) compared to the peak month of the rainy season (89.8%); a difference that was not found statistically significant (χ2 = 0.5077, n = 1385, p = 0.476). The overall cattle infestation rate was mainly dominated by five tick species namely: A. variegatum (55%), R. appendiculatus (53%), A. lepidum (41%), R. evertsi (22%), and R. decoloratus (8%). The proportion of tick-infested cattle was highest in Napak District (95.4%) and lowest in Amudat District (80.9%) during the peak month of the rainy season. Napak and Amudat Districts also had the highest and lowest proportion of tick-infested cattle (94.8% and 80.7% respectively) during the peak month of the dry season. Rhipicephalus microplus was confirmed in Amudat, Kaabong and Napak districts. CONCLUSION This study demonstrates high tick infestation rates in cattle by a battery of tick species in Karamoja region. We identified both R. microplus and R. decoloratus which indicates that R. microplus has recently been introduced in this region. This calls for effective tick control responses to prevent further spread of this invasive cattle tick specie.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Etiang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity (COVAB), Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Abubakar Musoba
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity (COVAB), Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
| | - David Nalumenya
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity (COVAB), Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Christian Ndekezi
- Medical Research Council, Uganda Virus Research Institute & London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (MRC/UVRI & LSHTM), Research Unit, P.O. Box 49, Entebbe, Uganda
| | - Johnson Bbira
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity (COVAB), Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Sylvester Ochwo
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity (COVAB), Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
- Center for Animal Health and Food Safety, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, 55108, USA
| | - Robert Tweyongyere
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity (COVAB), Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Dennis Muhanguzi
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity (COVAB), Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda.
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Kasozi KI, Hamira Y, Zirintunda G, Alsharif KF, Altalbawy FMA, Ekou J, Tamale A, Matama K, Ssempijja F, Muyinda R, Kawooya F, Pius T, Kisakye H, Bogere P, Matovu H, Omadang L, Etiang P, Mbogua J, Ochieng JJ, Osuwat LO, Mujinya R, Batiha GES, Otim O. Descriptive Analysis of Heavy Metals Content of Beef From Eastern Uganda and Their Safety for Public Consumption. Front Nutr 2021; 8:592340. [PMID: 33644107 PMCID: PMC7905049 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2021.592340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2020] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, we initiated an effort to generate information about beef safety in Uganda. Our entry point was to assess by atomic absorption spectrophotometry the levels of essential elements copper (Cu), cobalt (Co), iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn), and non-essential elements lead (Pb), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), and cadmium (Cd) in 40 beef samples collected from within and around Soroti (Uganda). The information was used to evaluate the safety of consuming such beef against the World Health Organization (WHO) limits. The latter was accomplished by (i) estimating the daily intake (EDI) of each metal in the study area, (ii) modeling the non-cancer health risk using the target hazard quotient (THQ) and (iii) modeling the cancer risk using the incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR). The study finds that the mean concentrations (±95% CI) and EDI were in the order of Fe > Zn > Cr > Ni > Pb > Co > Cu > Cd. Cancer risk was found to be due to Ni > Cr > Cd > Pb and significantly higher in children than adults. The latter particularly demonstrates the importance of Ni poisoning in the study area. Overall, while essential elements in our beef samples were below WHO limits (hence no health risks), non-essential elements had high health and cancer risks due to higher levels of Cr and Ni.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keneth Iceland Kasozi
- Department of Animal Production and Management, Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University Arapai Campus, Soroti, Uganda.,School of Medicine, Kabale University, Kabale, Uganda
| | - Yunusu Hamira
- Department of Animal Production and Management, Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University Arapai Campus, Soroti, Uganda
| | - Gerald Zirintunda
- Department of Animal Production and Management, Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University Arapai Campus, Soroti, Uganda
| | - Khalaf F Alsharif
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Taif University, Taif, Saudi Arabia
| | - Farag M A Altalbawy
- National Institute of Laser Enhanced Sciences, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
| | - Justine Ekou
- Department of Animal Production and Management, Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University Arapai Campus, Soroti, Uganda
| | - Andrew Tamale
- Department of Wildlife and Aquatic Animal Resources, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Resources, College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Kevin Matama
- School of Pharmacy, Kampala International University Western Campus, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Fred Ssempijja
- Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Kampala International University Western Campus, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Robert Muyinda
- Department of Animal Production and Management, Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University Arapai Campus, Soroti, Uganda
| | - Francis Kawooya
- School of Pharmacy, Kampala International University Western Campus, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Theophilus Pius
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, School of Allied Health Sciences, Kampala International University Western Campus, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Hellen Kisakye
- Department of Animal Production and Management, Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University Arapai Campus, Soroti, Uganda
| | - Paul Bogere
- Faculty of Agriculture and Environmental Science, Muni University, Arua, Uganda
| | - Henry Matovu
- Department of Animal Production and Management, Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University Arapai Campus, Soroti, Uganda
| | - Leonard Omadang
- Department of Animal Production and Management, Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University Arapai Campus, Soroti, Uganda
| | - Patrick Etiang
- Department of Animal Production and Management, Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University Arapai Campus, Soroti, Uganda
| | - Joseph Mbogua
- Department of Animal Production and Management, Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University Arapai Campus, Soroti, Uganda
| | - Juma John Ochieng
- Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Kampala International University Western Campus, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | | | - Regan Mujinya
- Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Kampala International University Western Campus, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Gaber El-Saber Batiha
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Damanhour University, Damanhour, Egypt
| | - Ochan Otim
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Gulu University, Gulu, Uganda.,Department of Humanities and Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
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Kasozi KI, Otim EO, Ninsiima HI, Zirintunda G, Tamale A, Ekou J, Musoke GH, Muyinda R, Matama K, Mujinya R, Matovu H, Ssempijja F, Eze ED, Atino M, Udechukwu B, Kayima R, Etiang P, Ayikobua ET, Kembabazi S, Usman IM, Sulaiman SO, Natabo PC, Kyeyune GN, Batiha GES, Otim O. An analysis of heavy metals contamination and estimating the daily intakes of vegetables from Uganda. Toxicology Research and Application 2021. [DOI: 10.1177/2397847320985255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Environmental contamination with elevated levels of copper (Cu), cobalt (Co), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), lead (Pb), chromium (Cr6+), cadmium (Cd), and nickel (Ni)—all states of which are found in Uganda—raises health risk to the public. Pb, Cr6+, Cd, and Ni for instance are generally considered nonessential to cellular functions, notwithstanding the importance of the oxidative state of the metals in bioavailability. As such, we aimed in this study (i) to evaluate heavy metal concentrations in four vegetables from a typical open-air market in Uganda, (ii) to assess the safety of consuming these vegetables against the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended limits of heavy metals consumption, and (iii) to formulate a model of estimated daily intake (EDI) among consumers in the country. Methods: This was a cross-sectional study conducted in five georeferenced markets of Bushenyi district in January 2020. Amaranthus, cabbages, scarlet eggplants, and tomatoes were collected from open markets, processed, and analyzed by atomic absorption spectrometry. Modeled EDI, principal component (PCA) and cluster analysis (CA) were conducted to identify relationships in the samples. Results: The levels of essential elements in the four vegetables were found to fall from Co > Cu > Fe > Zn. Those of non-essential metals were significantly higher and followed the pattern Cd > Cr > Pb > Ni. The highest EDI values were those of Cu in scarlet eggplants, Zn in amaranthus, Fe in amaranthus, Co in amaranthus, Pb in cabbages, total Cr in scarlet eggplant, Cd in cabbages and tomatoes, and Ni in cabbages. In comparison to international limits, EDIs for Zn, Cu, Co and Fe were low while Ni in cabbages were high. PCA showed high variations in scarlet eggplant and amaranthus. The study vegetables were found to be related with each other, not according to the location of the markets from where they were obtained, but according to their species by CA. Conclusion: The presence of non-essential elements above WHO limits raises policy challenges for the consumption and marketing of vegetables in the study area. Furthermore, low EDIs of essential elements in the vegetables create demand for nutritious foods to promote healthy communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keneth Iceland Kasozi
- Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University Arapai Campus, Soroti, Uganda
- School of Medicine, Kabale University, Kabale, Uganda
| | - Eric Oloya Otim
- College of Engineering and Sciences, Purdue University Northwest, Hammond, IN, USA
| | | | - Gerald Zirintunda
- Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University Arapai Campus, Soroti, Uganda
| | - Andrew Tamale
- Department of Wildlife Resources, School of Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Justin Ekou
- Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University Arapai Campus, Soroti, Uganda
| | - Grace Henry Musoke
- Faculty of Science and Technology, Cavendish University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Robert Muyinda
- Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University Arapai Campus, Soroti, Uganda
| | - Kevin Matama
- School of Pharmacy, Kampala International University Western Campus, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Regan Mujinya
- Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Kampala International University Western Campus, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Henry Matovu
- Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University Arapai Campus, Soroti, Uganda
| | - Fred Ssempijja
- Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Kampala International University Western Campus, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | | | - Mauryn Atino
- School of Pharmacy, Kampala International University Western Campus, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Bede Udechukwu
- School of Pharmacy, Kampala International University Western Campus, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Ronald Kayima
- School of Pharmacy, Kampala International University Western Campus, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Patrick Etiang
- Faculty of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Busitema University Arapai Campus, Soroti, Uganda
| | | | - Stellamaris Kembabazi
- Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Kampala International University Western Campus, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Ibe Michael Usman
- Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Kampala International University Western Campus, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Sheu Oluwadare Sulaiman
- Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Kampala International University Western Campus, Bushenyi, Uganda
- Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Phyllis Candy Natabo
- Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Kampala International University Western Campus, Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Grace Nambatya Kyeyune
- Directorate of Research, Natural Chemotherapeutics Research Institute, Ministry of Health, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Gaber El-Saber Batiha
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Damanhour University, Damanhour, AlBeheira, Egypt
| | - Ochan Otim
- Department of Humanities and Sciences, University of California – Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Gulu University, Gulu, Uganda
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