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Laber S, Strobel S, Mercader JM, Dashti H, dos Santos FR, Kubitz P, Jackson M, Ainbinder A, Honecker J, Agrawal S, Garborcauskas G, Stirling DR, Leong A, Figueroa K, Sinnott-Armstrong N, Kost-Alimova M, Deodato G, Harney A, Way GP, Saadat A, Harken S, Reibe-Pal S, Ebert H, Zhang Y, Calabuig-Navarro V, McGonagle E, Stefek A, Dupuis J, Cimini BA, Hauner H, Udler MS, Carpenter AE, Florez JC, Lindgren C, Jacobs SB, Claussnitzer M. Discovering cellular programs of intrinsic and extrinsic drivers of metabolic traits using LipocyteProfiler. Cell Genom 2023; 3:100346. [PMID: 37492099 PMCID: PMC10363917 DOI: 10.1016/j.xgen.2023.100346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2021] [Revised: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 05/26/2023] [Indexed: 07/27/2023]
Abstract
A primary obstacle in translating genetic associations with disease into therapeutic strategies is elucidating the cellular programs affected by genetic risk variants and effector genes. Here, we introduce LipocyteProfiler, a cardiometabolic-disease-oriented high-content image-based profiling tool that enables evaluation of thousands of morphological and cellular profiles that can be systematically linked to genes and genetic variants relevant to cardiometabolic disease. We show that LipocyteProfiler allows surveillance of diverse cellular programs by generating rich context- and process-specific cellular profiles across hepatocyte and adipocyte cell-state transitions. We use LipocyteProfiler to identify known and novel cellular mechanisms altered by polygenic risk of metabolic disease, including insulin resistance, fat distribution, and the polygenic contribution to lipodystrophy. LipocyteProfiler paves the way for large-scale forward and reverse deep phenotypic profiling in lipocytes and provides a framework for the unbiased identification of causal relationships between genetic variants and cellular programs relevant to human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha Laber
- Programs in Metabolism and Medical and Population Genetics, Type 2 Diabetes Systems Genomics Initiative, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Big Data Institute, Li Ka Shing Centre for Health Information and Discovery, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FZ, UK
- Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
| | - Sophie Strobel
- Programs in Metabolism and Medical and Population Genetics, Type 2 Diabetes Systems Genomics Initiative, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Institute of Nutritional Medicine, School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, 85354 Freising-Weihenstephan, Germany
| | - Josep M. Mercader
- Programs in Metabolism and Medical and Population Genetics, Type 2 Diabetes Systems Genomics Initiative, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Diabetes Unit and Center for Genomic Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Hesam Dashti
- Programs in Metabolism and Medical and Population Genetics, Type 2 Diabetes Systems Genomics Initiative, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- The Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Genomic Mechanisms of Disease, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Felipe R.C. dos Santos
- Programs in Metabolism and Medical and Population Genetics, Type 2 Diabetes Systems Genomics Initiative, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- The Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Genomic Mechanisms of Disease, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Phil Kubitz
- Programs in Metabolism and Medical and Population Genetics, Type 2 Diabetes Systems Genomics Initiative, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Else Kröner-Fresenius-Centre for Nutritional Medicine, School of Life Sciences, Technical University of Munich, 85354 Freising-Weihenstephan, Germany
- The Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Genomic Mechanisms of Disease, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Maya Jackson
- Programs in Metabolism and Medical and Population Genetics, Type 2 Diabetes Systems Genomics Initiative, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- The Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Genomic Mechanisms of Disease, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Alina Ainbinder
- Programs in Metabolism and Medical and Population Genetics, Type 2 Diabetes Systems Genomics Initiative, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Julius Honecker
- Else Kröner-Fresenius-Centre for Nutritional Medicine, School of Life Sciences, Technical University of Munich, 85354 Freising-Weihenstephan, Germany
| | - Saaket Agrawal
- Programs in Metabolism and Medical and Population Genetics, Type 2 Diabetes Systems Genomics Initiative, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Garrett Garborcauskas
- Programs in Metabolism and Medical and Population Genetics, Type 2 Diabetes Systems Genomics Initiative, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - David R. Stirling
- Imaging Platform, Center for the Development of Therapeutics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Aaron Leong
- Programs in Metabolism and Medical and Population Genetics, Type 2 Diabetes Systems Genomics Initiative, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Diabetes Unit and Center for Genomic Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Katherine Figueroa
- Programs in Metabolism and Medical and Population Genetics, Type 2 Diabetes Systems Genomics Initiative, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Diabetes Unit and Center for Genomic Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Nasa Sinnott-Armstrong
- Programs in Metabolism and Medical and Population Genetics, Type 2 Diabetes Systems Genomics Initiative, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Maria Kost-Alimova
- Imaging Platform, Center for the Development of Therapeutics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Giacomo Deodato
- Programs in Metabolism and Medical and Population Genetics, Type 2 Diabetes Systems Genomics Initiative, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Alycen Harney
- Programs in Metabolism and Medical and Population Genetics, Type 2 Diabetes Systems Genomics Initiative, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Gregory P. Way
- Imaging Platform, Center for the Development of Therapeutics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Alham Saadat
- Programs in Metabolism and Medical and Population Genetics, Type 2 Diabetes Systems Genomics Initiative, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Sierra Harken
- Programs in Metabolism and Medical and Population Genetics, Type 2 Diabetes Systems Genomics Initiative, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Saskia Reibe-Pal
- Big Data Institute, Li Ka Shing Centre for Health Information and Discovery, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FZ, UK
| | - Hannah Ebert
- Institute of Nutritional Science, University Hohenheim, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Yixin Zhang
- Department of Biostatistics, Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02118, USA
| | - Virtu Calabuig-Navarro
- Programs in Metabolism and Medical and Population Genetics, Type 2 Diabetes Systems Genomics Initiative, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Institute of Nutritional Science, University Hohenheim, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Elizabeth McGonagle
- Programs in Metabolism and Medical and Population Genetics, Type 2 Diabetes Systems Genomics Initiative, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Adam Stefek
- Programs in Metabolism and Medical and Population Genetics, Type 2 Diabetes Systems Genomics Initiative, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Josée Dupuis
- Department of Biostatistics, Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02118, USA
- Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Occupational Health, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1G1, Canada
| | - Beth A. Cimini
- Programs in Metabolism and Medical and Population Genetics, Type 2 Diabetes Systems Genomics Initiative, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Hans Hauner
- Institute of Nutritional Medicine, School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, 85354 Freising-Weihenstephan, Germany
- Else Kröner-Fresenius-Centre for Nutritional Medicine, School of Life Sciences, Technical University of Munich, 85354 Freising-Weihenstephan, Germany
- German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Miriam S. Udler
- Programs in Metabolism and Medical and Population Genetics, Type 2 Diabetes Systems Genomics Initiative, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Diabetes Unit and Center for Genomic Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Anne E. Carpenter
- Imaging Platform, Center for the Development of Therapeutics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Jose C. Florez
- Programs in Metabolism and Medical and Population Genetics, Type 2 Diabetes Systems Genomics Initiative, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Diabetes Unit and Center for Genomic Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Cecilia Lindgren
- Programs in Metabolism and Medical and Population Genetics, Type 2 Diabetes Systems Genomics Initiative, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Big Data Institute, Li Ka Shing Centre for Health Information and Discovery, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FZ, UK
- Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
| | - Suzanne B.R. Jacobs
- Programs in Metabolism and Medical and Population Genetics, Type 2 Diabetes Systems Genomics Initiative, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Diabetes Unit and Center for Genomic Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Melina Claussnitzer
- Programs in Metabolism and Medical and Population Genetics, Type 2 Diabetes Systems Genomics Initiative, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Diabetes Unit and Center for Genomic Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- The Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Genomic Mechanisms of Disease, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
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Glunk V, Laber S, Sinnott-Armstrong N, Sobreira DR, Strobel SM, Batista TM, Kubitz P, Moud BN, Ebert H, Huang Y, Brandl B, Garbo G, Honecker J, Stirling DR, Abdennur N, Calabuig-Navarro V, Skurk T, Ocvirk S, Stemmer K, Cimini BA, Carpenter AE, Dankel SN, Lindgren CM, Hauner H, Nobrega MA, Claussnitzer M. A non-coding variant linked to metabolic obesity with normal weight affects actin remodelling in subcutaneous adipocytes. Nat Metab 2023; 5:861-879. [PMID: 37253881 DOI: 10.1038/s42255-023-00807-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Recent large-scale genomic association studies found evidence for a genetic link between increased risk of type 2 diabetes and decreased risk for adiposity-related traits, reminiscent of metabolically obese normal weight (MONW) association signatures. However, the target genes and cellular mechanisms driving such MONW associations remain to be identified. Here, we systematically identify the cellular programmes of one of the top-scoring MONW risk loci, the 2q24.3 risk locus, in subcutaneous adipocytes. We identify a causal genetic variant, rs6712203, an intronic single-nucleotide polymorphism in the COBLL1 gene, which changes the conserved transcription factor motif of POU domain, class 2, transcription factor 2, and leads to differential COBLL1 gene expression by altering the enhancer activity at the locus in subcutaneous adipocytes. We then establish the cellular programme under the genetic control of the 2q24.3 MONW risk locus and the effector gene COBLL1, which is characterized by impaired actin cytoskeleton remodelling in differentiating subcutaneous adipocytes and subsequent failure of these cells to accumulate lipids and develop into metabolically active and insulin-sensitive adipocytes. Finally, we show that perturbations of the effector gene Cobll1 in a mouse model result in organismal phenotypes matching the MONW association signature, including decreased subcutaneous body fat mass and body weight along with impaired glucose tolerance. Taken together, our results provide a mechanistic link between the genetic risk for insulin resistance and low adiposity, providing a potential therapeutic hypothesis and a framework for future identification of causal relationships between genome associations and cellular programmes in other disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viktoria Glunk
- Institute of Nutritional Medicine, School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
- ZIEL Institute for Food & Health, Else Kröner-Fresenius-Center for Nutritional Medicine, School of Life Sciences, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
| | - Samantha Laber
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Medical and Population Genetics Program & Type 2 Diabetes Systems Genomics Initiative, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Nasa Sinnott-Armstrong
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Medical and Population Genetics Program & Type 2 Diabetes Systems Genomics Initiative, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
- Herbold Computational Biology Program, Publich Health Sciences Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Debora R Sobreira
- Department of Human Genetics, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Sophie M Strobel
- Institute of Nutritional Medicine, School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
- ZIEL Institute for Food & Health, Else Kröner-Fresenius-Center for Nutritional Medicine, School of Life Sciences, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Medical and Population Genetics Program & Type 2 Diabetes Systems Genomics Initiative, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Thiago M Batista
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Medical and Population Genetics Program & Type 2 Diabetes Systems Genomics Initiative, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Genomic Mechanisms of Disease, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Phil Kubitz
- Institute of Nutritional Medicine, School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
- ZIEL Institute for Food & Health, Else Kröner-Fresenius-Center for Nutritional Medicine, School of Life Sciences, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Medical and Population Genetics Program & Type 2 Diabetes Systems Genomics Initiative, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Genomic Mechanisms of Disease, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Bahareh Nemati Moud
- Institute of Nutritional Medicine, School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
- ZIEL Institute for Food & Health, Else Kröner-Fresenius-Center for Nutritional Medicine, School of Life Sciences, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
| | - Hannah Ebert
- Institute of Nutritional Sciences, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Yi Huang
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Medical and Population Genetics Program & Type 2 Diabetes Systems Genomics Initiative, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Genomic Mechanisms of Disease, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Beate Brandl
- Institute of Nutritional Medicine, School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
- ZIEL Institute for Food & Health, Else Kröner-Fresenius-Center for Nutritional Medicine, School of Life Sciences, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
| | - Garrett Garbo
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Medical and Population Genetics Program & Type 2 Diabetes Systems Genomics Initiative, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Julius Honecker
- Institute of Nutritional Medicine, School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
- ZIEL Institute for Food & Health, Else Kröner-Fresenius-Center for Nutritional Medicine, School of Life Sciences, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
| | - David R Stirling
- Imaging Platform, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Nezar Abdennur
- Institute for Medical Engineering and Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Virtu Calabuig-Navarro
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Medical and Population Genetics Program & Type 2 Diabetes Systems Genomics Initiative, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Institute of Nutritional Sciences, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Thomas Skurk
- Institute of Nutritional Medicine, School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
- ZIEL Institute for Food & Health, Else Kröner-Fresenius-Center for Nutritional Medicine, School of Life Sciences, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
| | - Soeren Ocvirk
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition, Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Intestinal Microbiology Research Group, Department of Molecular Toxicology, German Institute of Human Nutrition Potsdam-Rehbruecke, Nuthetal, Germany
| | - Kerstin Stemmer
- Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Theoretical Medicine, University of Augsburg, Augsburg, Germany
- Institute for Diabetes and Obesity, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Neuherberg, Germany
- German Center for Diabetes Research, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Beth A Cimini
- Imaging Platform, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Anne E Carpenter
- Imaging Platform, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Simon N Dankel
- Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Cecilia M Lindgren
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Medical and Population Genetics Program & Type 2 Diabetes Systems Genomics Initiative, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Big Data Institute at the Li Ka Shing Centre for Health Information and Discovery, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Hans Hauner
- Institute of Nutritional Medicine, School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
- ZIEL Institute for Food & Health, Else Kröner-Fresenius-Center for Nutritional Medicine, School of Life Sciences, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
| | - Marcelo A Nobrega
- Department of Human Genetics, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Melina Claussnitzer
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Medical and Population Genetics Program & Type 2 Diabetes Systems Genomics Initiative, Cambridge, MA, USA.
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Genomic Mechanisms of Disease, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA.
- Diabetes Unit and Center for Genomic Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
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Sergi D, Morris AC, Kahn DE, McLean FH, Hay EA, Kubitz P, MacKenzie A, Martinoli MG, Drew JE, Williams LM. Palmitic acid triggers inflammatory responses in N42 cultured hypothalamic cells partially via ceramide synthesis but not via TLR4. Nutr Neurosci 2018; 23:321-334. [PMID: 30032721 DOI: 10.1080/1028415x.2018.1501533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
A high-fat diet induces hypothalamic inflammation in rodents which, in turn, contributes to the development of obesity by eliciting both insulin and leptin resistance. However, the mechanism by which long-chain saturated fatty acids trigger inflammation is still contentious. To elucidate this mechanism, the effect of fatty acids on the expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and TNFα was investigated in the mHypoE-N42 hypothalamic cell line (N42). N42 cells were treated with lauric acid (LA) and palmitic acid (PA). PA challenge was carried out in the presence of either a TLR4 inhibitor, a ceramide synthesis inhibitor (L-cycloserine), oleic acid (OA) or eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). Intracellular ceramide accumulation was quantified using LC-ESI-MS/MS. PA but not LA upregulated IL-6 and TNFα. L-cycloserine, OA and EPA all counteracted PA-induced intracellular ceramide accumulation leading to a downregulation of IL-6 and TNFα. However, a TLR4 inhibitor failed to inhibit PA-induced upregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines.In conclusion, PA induced the expression of IL-6 and TNFα in N42 neuronal cells independently of TLR4 but, partially, via ceramide synthesis with OA and EPA being anti-inflammatory by decreasing PA-induced intracellular ceramide build-up. Thus, ceramide accumulation represents one on the mechanisms by which PA induces inflammation in neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Domenico Sergi
- Rowett Institute, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, UK
| | - Amanda C Morris
- Rowett Institute, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, UK
| | - Darcy E Kahn
- Rowett Institute, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, UK
| | - Fiona H McLean
- Rowett Institute, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, UK
| | - Elizabeth A Hay
- Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, UK
| | - Phil Kubitz
- Rowett Institute, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, UK
| | - Alasdair MacKenzie
- Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, UK
| | - Maria G Martinoli
- Cellular Neurobiology Group, Université du Québec, Trois-Rivières, Québec, G9A 5H7 Canada
| | - Janice E Drew
- Rowett Institute, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, UK
| | - Lynda M Williams
- Rowett Institute, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, UK
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