Implications of oxidative stress and inflammatory process in the cytotoxicity of capsaicin in human endothelial cells: lack of DNA strand breakage

Capsaicin, a natural product of Capsicum species is known to induce excitation of nociceptive terminals involved in pain perception. Nevertheless, it is utilized by topical application in humans, giving rise to blood capsaicin concentration up to 10-20 microM. The effect of capsaicin on human endothelial cells ECV 304 has been investigated. The cytotoxicity and inflammatory properties of capsaicin were evaluated by measuring the capsaicin-stimulated release of soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 levels (sICAM-1) into the culture medium; production of reactive oxygen species measured by quantification of lipoperoxidation in endothelial cell membranes; and genotoxicity measured using the comet assay and the DNA fragmentation assay. The concentration inhibiting protein synthesis by 50% after 24-h incubation was found to be 175 microM. Capsaicin induced an increase of sICAM-1 release into the culture medium at concentration >/=100 microM. Lipoperoxidation measured by malondialdehyde production increased at capsaicin concentration >/=200 microM. The comet test and DNA fragmentation assay clearly suggested that capsaicin does not induce significant DNA strand breaks within the range of concentrations used. Because the inflammatory reaction and lipid peroxidation may affect cellular functions and lead to cell death, the present data may have important implications for the possible health threats of capsaicin, specially in the case of unreasonable use of capsaicin preparations in pathological situations.

Cytotoxicity of capsaicin in monkey kidney cells: lack of antagonistic effects of capsazepine and Ruthenium red

Capsaicin is a natural product of Capsicum peppers, excitatory effects of which have been shown to be mediated by the recently cloned vanilloid receptor 1 (VR1). Since previous studies have shown that capsaicin inhibits protein synthesis, experiments were performed to investigate whether this effect is mediated by VR1 receptor on cultured monkey kidney cells (Vero cells). The capsaicin uptake was assessed in cellular homogenate and in medium by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) separation and quantification on C18 reverse-phase column and fluorescence detection. Toxic effects were assessed by incorporation of [3H]L-leucine into cellular proteins in the presence of capsazepine, the VR1 vanilloid receptor antagonist and Ruthenium red or tyrosine or calcium. Capsazepine (1 to 256 microM) did not modify the uptake rate of capsaicin for incubation times up to 24 h and did not antagonize capsaicin-induced protein synthesis inhibition. It rather inhibited protein synthesis per se from 100 to 256 microM. Ruthenium red which blocks mitochondrial calcium uptake, inhibited protein synthesis and did not antagonise or increase synergistically the effects of capsaicin. Interestingly in a medium deprived of calcium and supplemented by calcium chloride (10-50 microM) the protein synthesis inhibition induced by capsaicin is antagonised somehow. There was no prevention of capsaicin diffusion into the cells. Tyrosine, which seems to be the best preventive agent of capsaicin inhibitory effects, prevents its metabolism but not its diffusion. Capsaicin might enter cells by diffusion and interfere with protein synthesis machinery by competition with tyrosine which in turn prevents the metabolism of capsaicin. The results of the present study suggest that cell responses to capsaicin may be transduced through at least two molecular pathways, one involving VR1, since the receptor antagonist capsazepine fails to prevent the inhibitory effect of capsaicin in Vero cells of renal origin.

Cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of capsaicin in human neuroblastoma cells SHSY-5Y

Capsaicin, a natural product of Capsicum species, induces excitation of pain perception at nociceptive terminals. Our previous studies have shown that capsaicin inhibits protein synthesis in cultured monkey kidneys cells (Vero cells) and in primoculture of rat astrocytes. We have now investigated the effect of capsaicin on human neuroblastoma cells SHSY-5Y. The cytotoxicity has been assessed by incorporation of [(3)H]L-leucine into cellular protein in the presence of capsaicin and the genotoxicity has been evaluated using the comet assay and the fragmentation assay after incubation of neuroblastoma cells with 25-100 microM capsaicin. The concentration required to inhibit 50% of the protein synthesis (IC(50)) was found to be 60 microM after incubation with the toxin during one cellular cycle (5 days) of SHSY-5Y. The results of the comet test and DNA fragmentation assay clearly suggest that capsaicin is able to induce DNA strand breaks already with concentrations in the range of 50 microM, corresponding to 29.3 microM of capsaicin not bound to alpha-1 acid glycoprotein. Several daily topical applications of preparations containing 0.075% of capsaicin could lead to blood capsaicin concentration of this order of magnitude following transdermal passage (5% of the total quantity applied). Because DNA strand breaks or DNA lesions may affect cellular functions, lead to cell death and/or mutagenesis, our data in case of inappropriate DNA repair may have important implications for the possible health threats of capsaicin, specially in the case of misuse of capsaicin preparations in pathological situations.

Oxythiamine and dehydroepiandrosterone induce a G1 phase cycle arrest in Ehrlich's tumor cells through inhibition of the pentose cycle

Transketolase (TK) reactions play a crucial role in tumor cell nucleic acid ribose synthesis utilizing glucose carbons, yet, current cancer treatments do not target this central pathway. Experimentally, a dramatic decrease in tumor cell proliferation after the administration of the TK inhibitor oxythiamine (OT) was observed in several in vitro and in vivo tumor models. Here, we demonstrate that pentose cycle (PC) inhibitors, OT and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), efficiently regulate the cell cycle and tumor proliferation processes. Increasing doses of OT or DHEA were administered by daily intraperitoneal injections to Ehrlich's ascites tumor hosting mice for 4 days. The tumor cell number and their cycle phase distribution profile were determined by DNA flow histograms. Tumors showed a dose dependent increase in their G0-G1 cell populations after both OT and DHEA treatment and a simultaneous decrease in cells advancing to the S and G2-M cell cycle phases. This effect of PC inhibitors was significant, OT was more effective than DHEA, both drugs acted synergistically in combination and no signs of direct cell or host toxicity were observed. Direct inhibition of PC reactions causes a G1 cell cycle arrest similar to that of 2-deoxyglucose treatment. However, no interference with cell energy production and cell toxicity is observed. PC inhibitors, specifically ones targeting TK, introduce a new target site for the development of future cancer therapies to inhibit glucose utilizing pathways selectively for nucleic acid production.

Aspirin and heparin prevent hepatic blood stasis and thrombosis induced by the toxic glycoprotein Bolesatine in mice

Bolesatine is a toxic glycoprotein isolated from Boletus satanas Lenz, which inhibits protein synthesis in vivo and in vitro. The LD50 (24 h) is 1 mg /kg bw (i.p.), in mice and rats. When given i.p. to mice (0.1 - 1.0 mg/kg bw) bolesatine induced thrombi and blood stasis in the liver, 5 - 21 h after injection, and modifications of the number of blood corpuscles in peripheral blood. These effects were efficiently reversed by aspirin, ticlopidin and heparin (as attested by histology and electron microscopy) which however failed to prevent death in animals given lethal doses. Together, these results showed that the death of bolesatine poisoned animals given high doses, was rather due to a combination of thrombosis and other toxic effects. In addition, they suggest that these antithrombotic drugs may overcome cases of human poisoning, with low exposures of this boletus, showing a hypertension probably due to mechanical obstruction which resists normal therapy.

Cytotoxicity of fumonisin B1: implication of lipid peroxidation and inhibition of protein and DNA syntheses

The effects of fumonisin B1 (FB1) from Fusarium moniliforme on lipid peroxidation and protein and DNA syntheses were studied in monkey kidney cells (Vero cells). FB1 was found to be a potent inducer of malondialdehyde (MDA), one of the secondary products formed during lipid peroxidation. At 0.14 microM (0.1 microg/ml), FB1 induced 0.496 +/- 0.1 nmoles of MDA/ mg protein, compared to the control level 0.134 +/- 0.01 nmoles of MDA/mg protein (P < 0.005). No inhibition of protein or DNA synthesis was observed at this concentration of FB1. Inhibition of protein and DNA syntheses was observed at FB1 concentrations > 14 microM (10 microg/ml) with an IC50 of 33 microM for both protein synthesis and DNA synthesis. These results indicate that lipid peroxidation is a very sensitive cellular response to the mycotoxin fumonisin B1 observed at concentrations lower than that required to inhibit cellular synthesis of macromolecules, protein and DNA. This oxidative damage induced by FB1 concentrations encountered in naturally contaminated foodstuffs and feed might lead to mutagenicity and genotoxicity.

SECMA 1, a mitogenic hexapeptide from Ulva algeae modulates the production of proteoglycans and glycosaminoglycans in human foreskin fibroblast

SECMA 1 is a polypeptide purified from a green algeae of the Ulva species by several gel chromatographies, showing the following sequence (Glu-Asp-Arg-Leu-Lys-Pro). In order to determine the effect of SECMA 1 on human skin fibroblasts extracellular matrix, proteoglycans (PGs) and glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) were assayed after 24 h incubation of 20 day-old foreskin fibroblasts at the 2nd passage. The results revealed that most of [35S]sulphate was associated with fibroblast membranes, which contained (67%) of the total de novo synthesized sulphated PGs, in two distinct forms: one hydrophilic (39%), and one hydrophobic (28%). The remaining 'matrix' retained 5% of proteoglycans. The remaining 35S-label may represent the free label in the cytosol. After 24 h incubation of skin fibroblasts with different concentrations of SECMA 1 (2, 4 and 10 micrograms/ml), the [35S]sulphate incorporation into PGs of Salt-extract, sodium deoxycholate (DOC) extract and Guanidine hydrochloride (GuA-HCl)-extract was increased significantly (P < 0.005) with 4 micrograms/ml, as compared to untreated control. The most effective concentration (4 micrograms/ml) increased the different [35S]sulphate PGs extracts (NaCl, DOC and GuA-HCl) by respectively (66; 17 and 75%). The relative contents of iduronic and glucuronic acid in the GAG produced by skin fibroblasts were estimated. No effect of SECMA 1 on the incorporation of [35S]sulphate into Heparan sulphate was found. The incorporation of [35S]sulphate into (chondroïtine sulphate + heparan sulphate) and (chondroïtine sulphate + dermatan sulphate) was increased by respectively 37% and 11% by SECMA 1 (4 micrograms/ml).

Bolesatine induces agglutination of rat platelets and human erythrocytes and platelets in vitro

Bolesatine is a toxic glycoprotein isolated from the mushroom Boletus satanas Lenz, which has been shown to inhibit protein synthesis in cell-free systems and cell culture. It is toxic to rodents, the LD50% 24 h being 1 mg kg-1 (i.p.) and 0.15 mg kg-1 (i.v.) in the rat in which it induces hepatic blood stasis. Bolesatine possesses lectinic properties with in particular a sugar binding site for D-galactose and mitogenic activity toward lymphocytes. Tested for cell agglutination on red blood cells and platelets, bolesatine agglutinates both human and rat platelets from threshold concentrations of 30 and 300 nM respectively. EDTA and PGI2 (aggregation inhibitors) do not decrease the agglutination induced by bolesatine, indicating that the process does not involve platelet activation. In contrast, fibrinogen decreases platelet agglutination induced by bolesatine, most likely by masking the binding sites on platelets or by interacting with the toxin. Bolesatine agglutinates all red blood cells without any blood group specificity in the concentration range of 20 to 40 nM. This haemagglutination cannot be prevented by sugars, including D-galactose at a concentration of 0.5 M.

Lipid peroxidation induced by bolesatine, a toxin of Boletus satanas: implication in m5dC variation in Vero cells related to inhibition of cell growth

Bolesatine, a glycoprotein from Boletus satanas Lenz, has previously been shown to be mitogenic in rat and human lymphocytes at very low concentrations, whereas higher concentrations inhibited protein synthesis in vitro and in several in vivo systems. The low concentrations (1-10 ng/ml) of bolesatine were shown to activate protein kinase C (PKC) in vitro (cell-free system) and in Vero cells. In the same time, Vero cells significantly proliferated when incubated with bolesatine concentrations ranging from 1 to 10 ng/ml; the DNA synthesis increased by 27-59% as referred to the control, and InsP3 release increased in a concentration-dependent manner, up to 142%. At higher concentrations, 1-10 micrograms in cell-free systems, bolesatine inhibits protein synthesis by hydrolyzing the nucleoside triphosphates GTP and ATP. In the present work, the implication of other toxic mechanisms, such as lipid peroxidation and active radical production, was investigated in relation to inhibition of cell growth, whereas possible modifications of the ratio m5dC/dC+m5dC were determined in order to correlate with the biphasic action of bolesatine in Vero cells. Low concentrations of bolesatine up to 10 ng/ml do not increase malonaldehyde (MDA) production, while they induce hypomethylation (5.2% as compared to 7.1%). Higher concentrations (above 20 ng/ml) increase MDA production, from 58 ng/mg of cellular proteins to 113 ng/mg at a concentration of 50 ng/ml, for example, and induce hypermethylation in Vero cell DNA. It is concluded that low concentrations of bolesatine that are proliferative induce hypomethylation, which could be one of the pathways whereby bolesatine induces cell proliferation. Higher concentrations which enhance lipid peroxidation also induce hypermethylation. These mechanisms could be at least partly implicated in the pathway whereby bolesatine induces cell death.

Effects of bolesatine on a cell line from the SP2/O thymic lymphosarcoma

Bolesatine, a toxic protein isolated from Boletus satanas Lenz inhibits in vitro protein synthesis in a concentration-dependent manner in a cell line from a radiation-induced thymic lymphosarcoma (SP2/O) with a 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 9.5 nM (0.6 microgram/ml). In vivo, an i.p. single injection of bolesatine, corresponding to 1/6 and 1/10 of 24-h 50% lethal dose, in Balb/c mice having ascitic tumour induced by the i.p. preinjection of SP2/O cells allows a remission of 50% and 30%, respectively. Treated mice survived 120 days after the treatment, i.e. 90 days after the death of control animals.

Effect of bolesatine on phospholipid/calcium dependent protein kinase in Vero cells and in rat thymus

Bolesatine, a glycoprotein from Boletus satanas Lenz, has previously been shown to be mitogenic to rat and human lymphocytes at very low concentrations, whereas higher concentrations inhibit protein synthesis in vitro and in several in vivo systems. The mechanism whereby this mitogenic activity occurs was previously unknown. To elucidate this mechanism, the effects of bolesatine have been studied in a cell-free system, VERO cells, and in vivo in rat thymus. In a cell-free system, bolesatine appears to be a direct effector of PKC. The activation is concentration dependent for 1-10 ng/ml. At the same time, VERO cells significantly proliferate when incubated with the bolesatine (3, 5 and 10 ng/ml), since the DNA synthesis increases by 27, 48, and 59%, for respectively, 3, 5 and 10 ng/ml compared with control. Moreover, Bolesatine (5 and 10 ng/ml) induces InsP3 release in a concentration-dependent manner (114 and 142%) as compared to control. In vivo, 24 h after oral administration of bolesatine to rates (20, 100 and 200 microg/kg), PKC activity is significantly increased in thymus. THe most effective doses (100 and 200 microg/kg) give 590-620% increase in cytosolic PKC activity and 85-91% increase in total PKC activity as compared to control. This PKC activation by bolesatine in rat thymus is directly linked to the mitogenic activity observed in vivo. Bolesatine is thus capable of activating the PKC directly and/or indirectly (via InsP3 release) during its mitogenic processes.

Mode of action of bolesatine, a cytotoxic glycoprotein from Boletus satanas Lenz. Mechanistic approaches

Bolesatine is a potent cytotoxic glycoprotein purified from Boletus satanas Lenz, which has previously been shown to be an inhibitor of protein synthesis in several in vitro systems and in vivo. For a better understanding of its mechanism of action on protein synthesis at the ribosomal level, rat liver ribosomes were pretreated with bolesatine (1 to 10 micrograms) added to in vitro polyuridylic acid (poly(U)) translation systems before and after washing. The fact that ribosomes were still active confirmed that bolesatine cannot be included in the group of protein synthesis inhibitors of plant origin, known as ribosome-inactivating proteins (RIPs). The effect of bolesatine on the EF-2 elongation factor and post-ribosomal fraction was then studied in vitro. The results indicated that bolesatine does not have a direct effect on elongation factors, but hydrolyses the nucleoside triphosphates, GTP (80% to 90%, respectively for 1 to 10 micrograms) and ATP (10% to 40%, respectively for 1 to 10 micrograms), with consequent inhibition of protein synthesis. Thus, bolesatine should be classified as a nucleoside triphosphate phosphatase, rather than as a direct inhibitor of protein synthesis. The study of the effect of bolesatine on the EF-2 factor revealed that the mechanism whereby bolesatine affects protein synthesis probably involves GTP hydrolysis rather than EF-2 inhibition.

Effect of bolesatine, a glycoprotein from Boletus satanas, on rat thymus in vivo

Bolesatine is a glycoprotein purified to homogeneity from Boletus satanas Lenz, a toxic mushroom which causes serious gastroenteritis. This lectin possesses a mitogenic activity on human lymphocytes at very low concentrations, whereas higher concentrations inhibit protein synthesis in vitro in several systems. The mitogenic activity on peripheral blood T lymphocytes in vitro has been shown to be at least 200-fold higher than the activity of the well studied phytohemagglutinin (PHA). In order to verify this property in vivo, the effect of bolesatine has been studied in thymus of rats given orally bolesatine. Two groups of bolesatine-treated animals were used in addition to the control group. One group was given every 48 h, 28 micrograms of bolesatine/kg body weight seven times and 150 micrograms/kg body weight 48 h before the sacrifice. The other group was given 55 micrograms of bolesatine/kg body weight according to the same protocol and 150 micrograms/kg body weight 48 h before the sacrifice. In these conditions, the ratio thymus weight/body weight is increased by 10% and 28%, respectively, in groups 1 and 2. Similarly, the DNA synthesis is increased by more than 50%, indicating that (i) bolesatine probably possesses a mitogenic effect on thymocytes in vivo (ii) that the increase of the ratio thymus weight/body weight is not due to swelling by water retention, but rather to a multiplication of thymocytes. These results are confirmed in a second run of experiments in which bolesatine given orally to rats in lower doses of 3-12 micrograms/kg induces an increase of both thymus weight by 47% to 54% and an increase of total proteins by 52% to 56%, respectively, whereas the ratio total protein/g of thymus does not change. Thus bolesatine, known to be mitogenic to human lymphocytes in vitro is also mitogenic to rat thymocytes in vivo.