Measuring emotional contagion as a multidimensional construct: the development and initial validation of the contagion of affective phenomena scales

We offer an alternative conceptualization of the construct of susceptibility to emotional contagion and four related studies where two separate measures were developed and initially validated. The Contagion of Affective Phenomena Scale-General (CAPS-G) is a 5-item scale that measures the general susceptibility to the contagion of affect, and the Contagion of Affective Phenomena Scale - Emotion (CAPS-E) assesses six distinct emotions. Study 1 generated items with experts. Study 2 explored and confirmed construct validity and the factorial structure of both measures using exploratory structural equation modeling. Study 3 established test-retest reliability, concurrent validity, and discriminant validity. Study 4 found predictive validity with a sample of competitive swimmers. In four separate samples, a 21-item and 6-factor first-order structure of CAPS-E provided the best model fit. We provide initial evidence that supports the use of CAPS-E and CAPS-G as reliable and valid measures of the susceptibility to contagion of affective phenomena.

The effects of sleep deprivation, acute hypoxia, and exercise on cognitive performance: A multi-experiment combined stressors study

INTRODUCTION

Both sleep deprivation and hypoxia have been shown to impair executive function. Conversely, moderate intensity exercise is known to improve executive function. In a multi-experiment study, we tested the hypotheses that moderate intensity exercise would ameliorate any decline in executive function after i) three consecutive nights of partial sleep deprivation (PSD) (Experiment 1) and ii) the isolated and combined effects of a single night of total sleep deprivation (TSD) and acute hypoxia (Experiment 2).

METHODS

Using a rigorous randomised controlled crossover design, 12 healthy participants volunteered in each experiment (24 total, 5 females). In both experiments seven executive function tasks (2-choice reaction time, logical relations, manikin, mathematical processing, 1-back, 2-back, 3-back) were completed at rest and during 20 min semi-recumbent, moderate intensity cycling. Tasks were completed in the following conditions: before and after three consecutive nights of PSD and habitual sleep (Experiment 1) and in normoxia and acute hypoxia (FIO2 = 0.12) following one night of habitual sleep and one night of TSD (Experiment 2).

RESULTS

Although the effects of three nights of PSD on executive functions were inconsistent, one night of TSD (regardless of hypoxic status) reduced executive functions. Significantly, regardless of sleep or hypoxic status, executive functions are improved during an acute bout of moderate intensity exercise.

CONCLUSION

These novel data indicate that moderate intensity exercise improves executive function performance after both PSD and TSD, regardless of hypoxic status. The key determinants and/or mechanism(s) responsible for this improvement still need to be elucidated. Future work should seek to identify these mechanisms and translate these significant findings into occupational and skilled performance settings.

A Comparison of Training Modality and Total Genotype Scores to Enhance Sport-Specific Biomotor Abilities in Under 19 Male Soccer Players

ABSTRACT

Suraci, BR, Quigley, C, Thelwell, RC, and Milligan, GS. A comparison of training modality and total genotype scores to enhance sport-specific biomotor abilities in under 19 male soccer players. J Strength Cond Res 35(1): 154-161, 2021-Soccer-specific training (SST) and small-sided games (SSGs) have been shown to develop physical proficiency in soccer. Research on genetics and epigenetics in the prescription of training is limited. The aims of this study were to compare the impact of 3 different SST/SSG methods and investigate if a total genotype score (TGS) influences training response. Subjects (n = 30 male soccer players, mean ± SD; age 17.2 ± 0.9 years, stature = 172.6 ± 6.2 cm; body mass = 71.7 ± 10.1 kg) were stratified into a "power" (PG) or "endurance" (EG) gene profile group, where a 15 single nucleotide polymorphism panel was used to produce an algorithmically weighted TGS. Training 1 (T1-SSGs only), training 2 (T2-SSGs/SST), and training 3 (T3-SST only) were completed (in that respective order), lasting 8 weeks each, interspersed by 4-week washouts. Acceleration (10-m sprint) was improved by T2 only (1.84 ± 0.09 seconds vs. 1.73 ± 0.05 seconds; Effect Size [ES] = 1.59, p < 0.001). Speed (30-m sprint) was improved by T2 (4.46 ± 0.22 seconds vs. 4.30 ± 0.19 seconds; ES = 0.81, p < 0.001) and T3 (4.48 ± 0.22 seconds vs. 4.35 ± 0.21 seconds; ES = 0.58, p < 0.001). Agility (T-test) was improved by T1 (10.14 ± 0.40 seconds vs. 9.84 ± 0.42 seconds; ES = 0.73, p < 0.05) and T3 (9.93 ± 0.38 seconds vs. 9.66 ± 0.45 seconds; ES = 0.66, p < 0.001). Endurance (Yo-Yo level 1) was improved by T1 (1,682.22 ± 497.23 m vs. 2,028.89 ± 604.74 m; ES = 0.63, p < 0.05), T2 (1,904.35 ± 526.77 m vs. 2,299.13 ± 606.97 m; ES = 0.69, p < 0.001), and T3 (1,851.76 ± 490.46 m vs. 2,024.35 ± 588.13 m; ES = 0.35, p < 0.05). Power (countermovement jump) was improved by T3 only (36.01 ± 5.73 cm vs. 37.14 ± 5.62 cm; ES = 0.20, p < 0.05). There were no differences in T1, T2, and T3 combined when comparing PG and EG. The PG reported significantly (χ2(20) = 4.42, p = 0.035, ES = 0.48) better training responses to T3 for power than the EG. These results demonstrate the efficacy of SSGs and SSTs in developing biomotor abilities. Although these results refute talent identification through the use of a TGS, there may be use in aligning the training method to TGS to develop power-based qualities in soccer.

Emotional labor and professional practice in sports medicine and science

The aim of this study was to explore how sport medicine and science practitioners manage their emotions through emotional labor when engaging in professional practice in elite sport. To address the research aim a semistructured interview design was adopted. Specifically, eighteen professional sport medicine and science staff provided interviews. The sample comprised sport and exercise psychologists (n=6), strength and conditioning coaches (n=5), physiotherapists (n=5), one sports doctor and one generic sport scientist. Following a process of thematic analysis, the results were organized into the following overarching themes: (a) factors influencing emotional labor enactment, (b) emotional labor enactment, and (c) professional and personal outcomes. The findings provide a novel contribution to understanding the professional demands faced by practitioners and are discussed in relation to the development of professional competencies and the welfare and performance of sport medics and scientists.

Relation of Game Location and Experience on Mood States

The study investigated relationships between game location, performers' experience, and mood states. 31 experienced collegiate soccer players completed the Brunei Mood Scale to assess anger, calmness, confusion, depression, fatigue, happiness, tension, and vigor before eight competitive games (four home and four away). Participants were categorized into Experienced and Less Experienced groups, based on the level of performance at which they played. Repeated-measures multivariate analyses of variance compared mean mood scores across location and experience, and follow-up univariate analyses suggested the increase in mood scores on Tension and decrease in scores on Calmness, Happiness, and Vigor between playing away and at home were significantly greater for Less experienced soccer players than Experienced players. Implications of these findings for the applied practitioner are discussed.

Examining coaches' perceptions of how their stress influences the coach-athlete relationship

This study extends recent coach stress research by evaluating how coaches perceive their stress experiences to affect athletes, and the broader coach-athlete relationship. A total of 12 coaches working across a range of team sports at the elite level took part in semi-structured interviews to investigate the 3 study aims: how they perceive athletes to detect signals of coach stress; how they perceive their stress experiences to affect athletes; and, how effective they perceive themselves to be when experiencing stress. Following content analysis, data suggested that coaches perceived athletes able to detect when they were experiencing stress typically via communication, behavioural, and stylistic cues. Although coaches perceived their stress to have some positive effects on athletes, the overwhelming effects were negative and affected "performance and development", "psychological and emotional", and "behavioural and interaction" factors. Coaches also perceived themselves to be less effective when stressed, and this was reflected in their perceptions of competence, self-awareness, and coaching quality. An impactful finding is that coaches are aware of how a range of stress responses are expressed by themselves, and to how they affect athletes, and their coaching quality. Altogether, findings support the emerging view that coach stress affects their own, and athlete performance.

Color of soccer goalkeepers' uniforms influences the outcome of penalty kicks

This study examined the proposition that competing against red-clad opponents hinders the performance of soccer (football) athletes. 40 experienced players took 10 penalty kicks against a goalkeeper wearing a black jersey and, 1 week later, took 10 penalty kicks against a goalkeeper wearing either a red, green, blue, or yellow jersey. Prior to each set of kicks, participants reported their expectancy of success. Players facing red-clad goalkeepers scored on fewer penalty kicks than those facing either blue- or green-clad goalkeepers, but no differences in expectancy of success emerged. The findings indicate that athletes wearing red may have an advantage over their opponents.

Emotional intelligence and psychological skills use among athletes

Relationships between self-report trait emotional intelligence and psychological skills were investigated. Male athletes (54) completed the Emotional Intelligence Scale (EIS; Schutte et al., 1998) and the Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS; Thomas, Murphy, & Hardy, 1999). Canonical correlation results suggested psychological skills used in both competition and in practice relate to perceptions of emotional intelligence (Practice: Canonical R = .69, p < .001; Competition: Canonical R = .67, p < .01). Specifically, self-talk, imagery, and activation in both practice and competition were associated with perceptions of the appraisal of others' emotions and the ability to regulate emotions. The direction of relationships showed that individuals reporting frequent use of psychological skills also reported stronger perceptions of emotional intelligence. Future researchers should seek to establish the direction of relationships by investigating whether increased psychological skills use is associated with enhanced emotional intelligence or vice versa.

Psychological skills training improves exercise performance in the heat

INTRODUCTION

Fatigue occurs earlier when working at corresponding exercise intensities in hot compared with cool conditions. Psychological skills training (PST) can modify the responses evoked by thermal stimuli such as the respiratory responses on immersion to cold water. This study tested the hypothesis that a 4-d PST package would significantly increase the distance covered during 90 min of running in the heat.

METHOD

Eighteen subjects completed three maximal-effort runs (R1, R2, R3) of 90 min in the heat (30 degrees C; 40% RH). After R2, subjects were matched and randomly allocated to either a control group (CG) or psychological skills group (PSG). Between R2 and R3, the CG (N = 8) continued their normal activities, and the PSG (N = 10) received PST to help them tolerate unpleasant sensations arising from exercising in the heat, and to suppress the temptation to lower their work intensity. Key measures include distance covered, .VO2, skin (T(sk)) and aural temperature (T(au)), RPE, sweat production and evaporation, interleukin-6 (IL-6), and prolactin (PRL) in whole blood.

RESULTS

The distances covered in the CG did not differ between runs. In the PSG, there were no differences in the distance run between R1 and R2, but they ran significantly farther in R3 (8%; 1.15 km); there were no between-group differences. There were no significant differences between R1 and R3 in peak T(au), T(sk), sweat volumes, IL-6, and PRL (P > 0.05) in either group.

CONCLUSION

PST suppressed the temptation to reduce exercise intensity during R3. It is concluded that PST can improve running performance in the heat. The precise mechanisms underpinning these improvements are unclear; however, their implications for unblinded experimental design are not.

Breath-hold time during cold water immersion: effects of habituation with psychological training

INTRODUCTION

The loss of the conscious control of respiration on whole body cold water immersion (CWI) can result in the aspiration of water and drowning. Repeated CWI reduces the respiratory drive evoked by CWI and should prolong breath-hold time on CWI (BHmax(CWI)). Psychological skills training (PST) can also increase BHmax(CWI) by improving the ability of individuals to consciously suppress the drive to breathe. This study tested the hypothesis that combining PST and repeated CWI would extend BHmax(CWI) beyond that seen following only repeated CWI.

METHODS

There were 20 male subjects who completed two 2.5-min, head-out breath-hold CWI (BH1 and BH2) in water at 12 degrees C. Following BH1, subjects were matched on BHmax(CWI) and allocated to a habituation (HAB) group or a habituation plus PST group (H+PST). Between BH1 and BH2 both experimental groups undertook five 2.5-min CWI on separate days, during which they breathed freely. The H+PST also received psychological training to help tolerate cold and suppress the drive to breathe on immersion to extend BHmax(CWI).

RESULTS

During BH1, mean BHmax(CWI) (+/- SD) in the HAB group was 22.00 (10.33) s and 22.38 (10.65) s in the H+PST. After the five free-breathing CWI, both groups had a longer BHmax(CWI) in BH2. The HAB group improved by 14.13 (20.21) s, an increase of 73%. H+PST improved by 26.86 (24.70) s, a 120% increase. No significant differences were identified between the groups.

CONCLUSION

Habituation significantly increases BHmax on CWI, the addition of PST did not result in statistically significant improvements in BHmax(CWI), but may have practical significance.

Breath-hold performance during cold water immersion: effects of psychological skills training

INTRODUCTION

Accidental cold water immersion (CWI) is a significant cause of death, particularly in those who are immersed in rough water or forcibly submerged such as in a ditched and inverted helicopter. The marked reduction in maximal breath-hold time associated with CWI, part of the 'cold shock' response, significantly increases the risk of drowning. However, the response is highly variable between subjects. This experiment tested the hypothesis that part of this variability is due to psychological factors.

METHODS

There were 32 subjects who completed 2 2.5-min, head-out immersions in 11 degrees C water, separated by 7 d. Between immersions, subjects were matched on initial maximum breath-hold time on immersion (BHwater) and allocated to either a psychological intervention group (PIG) or control group (CG). PIG (n=16) subjects each undertook a psychological skills intervention comprising 4 interlinked training sessions covering goal-setting, arousal regulation, mental imagery, and positive self-talk; CG (n=16) continued normal daily activity.

RESULTS

Psychological intervention significantly increased BHwater on immersion in the PIG vs. the CG [mean (SD); CG BHwater immersion 1:24.01 (6.72) s; immersion 2: 21.34 (16.31) s; PIG: BHwater immersion 1: 24.66 (14.60) s; immersion 2: 44.25 (31.63) s]. The difference in maximum voluntary BHwater between immersion 1 and 2 in the PIG averaged 19.59 s, equating to an 80% increase following psychological intervention.

CONCLUSION

Psychological influences may account for a significant amount of the variability in the respiratory responses during CWI, and may be a key factor in determining the chances of survival following accidental immersion.

Professional cricketers' perceptions of the importance of antecedents influencing repeatable good performance

This study examined whether there is overall agreement amongst professional cricketers on the factors which are most important for the occurrence of repeatable good performances in the sport. Also, the consistency of the rank-order of such variables was investigated across individuals and roles within the same sport. A total of 198 cricketers (100 batters and 98 bowlers) who play or have played first class cricket in the English County Championship completed a rank-order task, which enabled them to use their experiences to judge the importance of 15 selected performance-influencing variables. Cultural consensus analysis indicated that no one factor for either batters or bowlers was significantly more important, despite many batters and bowlers ranking the need for 'total self-confidence' highest. Whilst no over-all agreement was found for batters and bowlers in their ranking of variables, a group of similar 'core elements', e.g., total self-confidence, following a set prematch routine, set performance plans, optimal arousal, and using mental rehearsal, were highly ranked by both groups, which may be an important consideration for practitioners endeavoring to produce strategies that encourage more consistent and higher performance for cricketers.

Anxiety-performance relationships in cricketers: testing the zone of optimal functioning hypothesis

This study extended Hanin's 1980 Zone of Optimal Functioning hypothesis by assessing both intensity and direction components of competitive state anxiety. 20 volunteer semiprofessional cricketers responded to the modified Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 prior to ten matches. For each game, players' performances were intraindividually evaluated by three qualified cricket coaches using subjective criteria. Separate Cognitive Anxiety and Somatic Anxiety 'below,' 'in,' and 'above' zones for Intensity and Direction of state anxiety were identified via repeated empirical assessments. Two two-way analyses of variance were computed for Intensity and Direction of anxiety (Cognitive Anxiety Zone Level x Somatic Anxiety Zone Level) with standardized performance scores as the dependent variable. A significant interaction was found between the zone levels for Cognitive and Somatic Anxiety Direction and performance scores. Examination of the Zone of Optimal Functioning hypothesis that focuses on the interactions between Cognitive and Somatic Anxiety and in particular the directional elements of the modified inventory seems warranted.