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Lehmann E, van Dalen R, Gritsch L, Slavetinsky C, Korn N, Rohmer C, Krause D, Peschel A, Weidenmaier C, Wolz C. The capsular polysaccharide obstructs wall teichoic acid functions in Staphylococcus aureus. J Infect Dis 2024:jiae188. [PMID: 38743812 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiae188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Revised: 04/04/2024] [Accepted: 04/10/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The cell envelope of Staphylococcus aureus contains two major secondary cell wall glycopolymers: capsular polysaccharide (CP) and wall teichoic acid (WTA). Both the CP and the WTA are attached to the cell wall and play distinct roles in S. aureus colonization, pathogenesis, and bacterial evasion of host immune defenses. OBJECTIVE We aimed to investigate whether CP interferes with WTA-mediated properties. METHODS Strains with natural heterogeneous expression of CP, strains with homogeneous high CP expression and CP-deficient strains were compared to WTA deficient controls regarding WTA dependent phage binding, cell adhesion, IgG deposition, and virulence in vivo. RESULTS WTA-mediated phage adsorption, specific antibody deposition and cell adhesion were negatively correlated with CP expression. WTA, but not CP, enhanced the bacterial burden in a mouse abscess model, while CP overexpression resulted in intermediate virulence in vivo. CONCLUSIONS CP protects the bacteria from WTA-dependent opsonization and phage binding. This protection comes at the cost of diminished adhesion to host cells. The highly complex regulation and mostly heterogeneous expression of CP has probably evolved to ensure the survival and optimal physiological adaptation of the bacterial population as a whole.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther Lehmann
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence EXC 2124 "Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections", University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Rob van Dalen
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence EXC 2124 "Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections", University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Lisa Gritsch
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence EXC 2124 "Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections", University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Christoph Slavetinsky
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence EXC 2124 "Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections", University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
- Pediatric Surgery and Urology, University Children's Hospital Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Natalya Korn
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence EXC 2124 "Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections", University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Carina Rohmer
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Daniela Krause
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence EXC 2124 "Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections", University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Andreas Peschel
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence EXC 2124 "Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections", University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Christopher Weidenmaier
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence EXC 2124 "Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections", University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Christiane Wolz
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence EXC 2124 "Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections", University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
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Slavetinsky J, Lehmann E, Slavetinsky C, Gritsch L, van Dalen R, Kretschmer D, Bleul L, Wolz C, Weidenmaier C, Peschel A. Wall Teichoic Acid Mediates Staphylococcus aureus Binding to Endothelial Cells via the Scavenger Receptor LOX-1. ACS Infect Dis 2023; 9:2133-2140. [PMID: 37910786 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.3c00252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2023]
Abstract
The success of Staphylococcus aureus as a major cause for endovascular infections depends on effective interactions with blood-vessel walls. We have previously shown that S. aureus uses its wall teichoic acid (WTA), a surface glycopolymer, to attach to endothelial cells. However, the endothelial WTA receptor remained unknown. We show here that the endothelial oxidized low-density lipoprotein receptor 1 (LOX-1) interacts with S. aureus WTA and permits effective binding of S. aureus to human endothelial cells. Purified LOX-1 bound to isolated S. aureus WTA. Ectopic LOX-1 expression led to increased binding of S. aureus wild type but not of a WTA-deficient mutant to a cell line, and LOX-1 blockage prevented S. aureus binding to endothelial cells. Moreover, WTA and LOX-1 expression levels correlated with the efficacy of the S. aureus-endothelial interaction. Thus, LOX-1 is an endothelial ligand for S. aureus, whose blockage may help to prevent or treat severe endovascular infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Slavetinsky
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen72076, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence EXC 2124 "Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections", University of Tübingen, Tübingen 72076, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Tübingen, Tübingen 72076 , Germany
| | - Esther Lehmann
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen72076, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence EXC 2124 "Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections", University of Tübingen, Tübingen 72076, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Tübingen, Tübingen 72076 , Germany
| | - Christoph Slavetinsky
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen72076, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence EXC 2124 "Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections", University of Tübingen, Tübingen 72076, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Tübingen, Tübingen 72076 , Germany
- Pediatric Surgery and Urology, University Children's Hospital Tübingen, Tübingen 72076, Germany
| | - Lisa Gritsch
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen72076, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence EXC 2124 "Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections", University of Tübingen, Tübingen 72076, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Tübingen, Tübingen 72076 , Germany
| | - Rob van Dalen
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen72076, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence EXC 2124 "Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections", University of Tübingen, Tübingen 72076, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Tübingen, Tübingen 72076 , Germany
| | - Dorothee Kretschmer
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen72076, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence EXC 2124 "Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections", University of Tübingen, Tübingen 72076, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Tübingen, Tübingen 72076 , Germany
| | - Lisa Bleul
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen72076, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence EXC 2124 "Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections", University of Tübingen, Tübingen 72076, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Tübingen, Tübingen 72076 , Germany
| | - Christiane Wolz
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen72076, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence EXC 2124 "Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections", University of Tübingen, Tübingen 72076, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Tübingen, Tübingen 72076 , Germany
| | - Christopher Weidenmaier
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen72076, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence EXC 2124 "Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections", University of Tübingen, Tübingen 72076, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Tübingen, Tübingen 72076 , Germany
| | - Andreas Peschel
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen72076, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence EXC 2124 "Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections", University of Tübingen, Tübingen 72076, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Tübingen, Tübingen 72076 , Germany
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van Dalen R, Elsherbini AMA, Harms M, Alber S, Stemmler R, Peschel A. Secretory IgA impacts the microbiota density in the human nose. Microbiome 2023; 11:233. [PMID: 37865781 PMCID: PMC10589987 DOI: 10.1186/s40168-023-01675-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2023] [Accepted: 09/24/2023] [Indexed: 10/23/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Respiratory mucosal host defense relies on the production of secretory IgA (sIgA) antibodies, but we currently lack a fundamental understanding of how sIgA is induced by contact with microbes and how such immune responses may vary between humans. Defense of the nasal mucosal barrier through sIgA is critical to protect from infection and to maintain homeostasis of the microbiome, which influences respiratory disorders and hosts opportunistic pathogens. METHODS We applied IgA-seq analysis to nasal microbiota samples from male and female healthy volunteers, to identify which bacterial genera and species are targeted by sIgA on the level of the individual host. Furthermore, we used nasal sIgA from the same individuals in sIgA deposition experiments to validate the IgA-seq outcomes. CONCLUSIONS We observed that the amount of sIgA secreted into the nasal mucosa by the host varied substantially and was negatively correlated with the bacterial density, suggesting that nasal sIgA limits the overall bacterial capacity to colonize. The interaction between mucosal sIgA antibodies and the nasal microbiota was highly individual with no obvious differences between potentially invasive and non-invasive bacterial species. Importantly, we could show that for the clinically relevant opportunistic pathogen and frequent nasal resident Staphylococcus aureus, sIgA reactivity was in part the result of epitope-independent interaction of sIgA with the antibody-binding protein SpA through binding of sIgA Fab regions. This study thereby offers a first comprehensive insight into the targeting of the nasal microbiota by sIgA antibodies. It thereby helps to better understand the shaping and homeostasis of the nasal microbiome by the host and may guide the development of effective mucosal vaccines against bacterial pathogens. Video Abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rob van Dalen
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, Department of Infection Biology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.
- Cluster of Excellence EXC2124 Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.
- Present Address: Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Ahmed M A Elsherbini
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, Department of Infection Biology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence EXC2124 Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Mareike Harms
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, Department of Infection Biology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence EXC2124 Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Svenja Alber
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, Department of Infection Biology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence EXC2124 Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Regine Stemmler
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, Department of Infection Biology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence EXC2124 Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Andreas Peschel
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, Department of Infection Biology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.
- Cluster of Excellence EXC2124 Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.
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Ali S, Hendriks A, van Dalen R, Bruyning T, Meeuwenoord N, Overkleeft HS, Filippov DV, van der Marel GA, van Sorge NM, Codée JDC. (Automated) Synthesis of Well-defined Staphylococcus Aureus Wall Teichoic Acid Fragments. Chemistry 2021; 27:10461-10469. [PMID: 33991006 PMCID: PMC8361686 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202101242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Wall teichoic acids (WTAs) are important components of the cell wall of the opportunistic Gram‐positive bacterium Staphylococcus aureus. WTAs are composed of repeating ribitol phosphate (RboP) residues that are decorated with d‐alanine and N‐acetyl‐d‐glucosamine (GlcNAc) modifications, in a seemingly random manner. These WTA‐modifications play an important role in shaping the interactions of WTA with the host immune system. Due to the structural heterogeneity of WTAs, it is impossible to isolate pure and well‐defined WTA molecules from bacterial sources. Therefore, here synthetic chemistry to assemble a broad library of WTA‐fragments, incorporating all possible glycosylation modifications (α‐GlcNAc at the RboP C4; β‐GlcNAc at the RboP C4; β‐GlcNAc at the RboP C3) described for S. aureus WTAs, is reported. DNA‐type chemistry, employing ribitol phosphoramidite building blocks, protected with a dimethoxy trityl group, was used to efficiently generate a library of WTA‐hexamers. Automated solid phase syntheses were used to assemble a WTA‐dodecamer and glycosylated WTA‐hexamer. The synthetic fragments have been fully characterized and diagnostic signals were identified to discriminate the different glycosylation patterns. The different glycosylated WTA‐fragments were used to probe binding of monoclonal antibodies using WTA‐functionalized magnetic beads, revealing the binding specificity of these WTA‐specific antibodies and the importance of the specific location of the GlcNAc modifications on the WTA‐chains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Ali
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC, Leiden (The, Netherlands
| | - Astrid Hendriks
- Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Heidelberglaan 100, 3584 CX, Utrecht (The, Netherlands
| | - Rob van Dalen
- Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Heidelberglaan 100, 3584 CX, Utrecht (The, Netherlands
| | - Thomas Bruyning
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC, Leiden (The, Netherlands
| | - Nico Meeuwenoord
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC, Leiden (The, Netherlands
| | - Herman S Overkleeft
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC, Leiden (The, Netherlands
| | - Dmitri V Filippov
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC, Leiden (The, Netherlands
| | - Gijs A van der Marel
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC, Leiden (The, Netherlands
| | - Nina M van Sorge
- Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Heidelberglaan 100, 3584 CX, Utrecht (The, Netherlands
| | - Jeroen D C Codée
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC, Leiden (The, Netherlands
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Hendriks A, van Dalen R, Ali S, Gerlach D, van der Marel GA, Fuchsberger FF, Aerts PC, de Haas CJ, Peschel A, Rademacher C, van Strijp JA, Codée JD, van Sorge NM. Impact of Glycan Linkage to Staphylococcus aureus Wall Teichoic Acid on Langerin Recognition and Langerhans Cell Activation. ACS Infect Dis 2021; 7:624-635. [PMID: 33591717 PMCID: PMC8023653 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.0c00822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
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Staphylococcus
aureus is the leading cause of
skin and soft tissue infections. It remains incompletely understood
how skin-resident immune cells respond to invading S. aureus and contribute to an effective immune response. Langerhans cells
(LCs), the only professional antigen-presenting cell type in the epidermis,
sense S. aureus through their pattern-recognition
receptor langerin, triggering a proinflammatory response. Langerin
recognizes the β-1,4-linked N-acetylglucosamine
(β1,4-GlcNAc) but not α-1,4-linked GlcNAc (α1,4-GlcNAc)
modifications, which are added by dedicated glycosyltransferases TarS
and TarM, respectively, on the cell wall glycopolymer wall teichoic
acid (WTA). Recently, an alternative WTA glycosyltransferase, TarP,
was identified, which also modifies WTA with β-GlcNAc but at
the C-3 position (β1,3-GlcNAc) of the WTA ribitol phosphate
(RboP) subunit. Here, we aimed to unravel the impact of β-GlcNAc
linkage position for langerin binding and LC activation. Using genetically
modified S. aureus strains, we observed that langerin
similarly recognized bacteria that produce either TarS- or TarP-modified
WTA, yet tarP-expressing S. aureus induced increased cytokine production and maturation of in vitro-generated LCs compared to tarS-expressing S. aureus. Chemically synthesized WTA
molecules, representative of the different S. aureus WTA glycosylation patterns, were used to identify langerin-WTA binding
requirements. We established that β-GlcNAc is sufficient to
confer langerin binding, thereby presenting synthetic WTA molecules
as a novel glycobiology tool for structure-binding studies and for
elucidating S. aureus molecular pathogenesis. Overall,
our data suggest that LCs are able to sense all β-GlcNAc-WTA
producing S. aureus strains, likely performing an
important role as first responders upon S. aureus skin invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Astrid Hendriks
- Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, 3584 CX Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Glaxo-Smith Kline, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Rob van Dalen
- Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, 3584 CX Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Sara Ali
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, 2311 EZ Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - David Gerlach
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, 72074 Tübingen, Germany
- Partner Site Tübingen, German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), 72074 Tübingen, Germany
| | | | | | - Piet C. Aerts
- Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, 3584 CX Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Carla J.C. de Haas
- Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, 3584 CX Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Andreas Peschel
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, 72074 Tübingen, Germany
- Partner Site Tübingen, German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), 72074 Tübingen, Germany
| | | | - Jos A.G. van Strijp
- Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, 3584 CX Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Jeroen D.C. Codée
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, 2311 EZ Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Nina M. van Sorge
- Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, 3584 CX Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Mnich ME, van Dalen R, van Sorge NM. C-Type Lectin Receptors in Host Defense Against Bacterial Pathogens. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2020; 10:309. [PMID: 32733813 PMCID: PMC7358460 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.00309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2020] [Accepted: 05/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) are present throughout the human body—in tissues, at barrier sites and in the circulation. They are critical for processing external signals to instruct both local and systemic responses toward immune tolerance or immune defense. APCs express an extensive repertoire of pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs) to detect and transduce these signals. C-type lectin receptors (CLRs) comprise a subfamily of PRRs dedicated to sensing glycans, including those expressed by commensal and pathogenic bacteria. This review summarizes recent findings on the recognition of and responses to bacteria by membrane-expressed CLRs on different APC subsets, which are discussed according to the primary site of infection. Many CLR-bacterial interactions promote bacterial clearance, whereas other interactions are exploited by bacteria to enhance their pathogenic potential. The discrimination between protective and virulence-enhancing interactions is essential to understand which interactions to target with new prophylactic or treatment strategies. CLRs are also densely concentrated at APC dendrites that sample the environment across intact barrier sites. This suggests an–as yet–underappreciated role for CLR-mediated recognition of microbiota-produced glycans in maintaining tolerance at barrier sites. In addition to providing a concise overview of identified CLR-bacteria interactions, we discuss the main challenges and potential solutions for the identification of new CLR-bacterial interactions, including those with commensal bacteria, and for in-depth structure-function studies on CLR-bacterial glycan interactions. Finally, we highlight the necessity for more relevant tissue-specific in vitro, in vivo and ex vivo models to develop therapeutic applications in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malgorzata E Mnich
- Medical Microbiology, UMC Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands.,GSK, Siena, Italy
| | - Rob van Dalen
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Nina M van Sorge
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, Amsterdam University Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands.,Netherlands Reference Laboratory for Bacterial Meningitis, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Amsterdam, Netherlands
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7
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Mnich ME, van Dalen R, Gerlach D, Hendriks A, Xia G, Peschel A, van Strijp JAG, van Sorge NM. The C-type lectin receptor MGL senses N-acetylgalactosamine on the unique Staphylococcus aureus ST395 wall teichoic acid. Cell Microbiol 2019; 21:e13072. [PMID: 31219660 PMCID: PMC6771913 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.13072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Revised: 05/24/2019] [Accepted: 06/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is a common skin commensal but is also associated with various skin and soft tissue pathologies. Upon invasion, S. aureus is detected by resident innate immune cells through pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs), although a comprehensive understanding of the specific molecular interactions is lacking. Recently, we demonstrated that the PRR langerin (CD207) on epidermal Langerhans cells senses the conserved β-1,4-linked N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) modification on S. aureus wall teichoic acid (WTA), thereby increasing skin inflammation. Interestingly, the S. aureus ST395 lineage as well as certain species of coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS) produce a structurally different WTA molecule, consisting of poly-glycerolphosphate with α-O-N-acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc) residues, which are attached by the glycosyltransferase TagN. Here, we demonstrate that S. aureus ST395 strains interact with the human Macrophage galactose-type lectin (MGL; CD301) receptor, which is expressed by dendritic cells and macrophages in the dermis. MGL bound S. aureus ST395 in a tagN- and GalNAc-dependent manner but did not interact with different tagN-positive CoNS species. However, heterologous expression of Staphylococcus lugdunensis tagN in S. aureus conferred phage infection and MGL binding, confirming the role of this CoNS enzyme as GalNAc-transferase. Functionally, the detection of GalNAc on S. aureus ST395 WTA by human monocyte-derived dendritic cells significantly enhanced cytokine production. Together, our findings highlight differential recognition of S. aureus glycoprofiles by specific human innate receptors, which may affect downstream adaptive immune responses and pathogen clearance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malgorzata E Mnich
- Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Glaxo-Smith Kline, Siena, Italy
| | - Rob van Dalen
- Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - David Gerlach
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Tübingen, Germany
| | - Astrid Hendriks
- Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Glaxo-Smith Kline, Siena, Italy
| | - Guoqing Xia
- Lydia Becker Institute of Immunology and Inflammation, Division of Infection, Immunity and Respiratory Medicine, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Manchester, UK
| | - Andreas Peschel
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Tübingen, Germany
| | - Jos A G van Strijp
- Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Nina M van Sorge
- Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Abdel-Nour M, Carneiro LAM, Downey J, Tsalikis J, Outlioua A, Prescott D, Costa LSD, Hovingh ES, Farahvash A, Gaudet RG, Molinaro R, van Dalen R, Lau CCY, Azimi FC, Escalante NK, Trotman-Grant A, Lee JE, Gray-Owen SD, Divangahi M, Chen JJ, Philpott DJ, Arnoult D, Girardin SE. The heme-regulated inhibitor is a cytosolic sensor of protein misfolding that controls innate immune signaling. Science 2019; 365:eaaw4144. [PMID: 31273097 PMCID: PMC10433729 DOI: 10.1126/science.aaw4144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2018] [Revised: 04/16/2019] [Accepted: 06/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Multiple cytosolic innate sensors form large signalosomes after activation, but this assembly needs to be tightly regulated to avoid accumulation of misfolded aggregates. We found that the eIF2α kinase heme-regulated inhibitor (HRI) controls NOD1 signalosome folding and activation through a process requiring eukaryotic initiation factor 2α (eIF2α), the transcription factor ATF4, and the heat shock protein HSPB8. The HRI/eIF2α signaling axis was also essential for signaling downstream of the innate immune mediators NOD2, MAVS, and TRIF but dispensable for pathways dependent on MyD88 or STING. Moreover, filament-forming α-synuclein activated HRI-dependent responses, which suggests that the HRI pathway may restrict toxic oligomer formation. We propose that HRI, eIF2α, and HSPB8 define a novel cytosolic unfolded protein response (cUPR) essential for optimal innate immune signaling by large molecular platforms, functionally homologous to the PERK/eIF2α/HSPA5 axis of the endoplasmic reticulum UPR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mena Abdel-Nour
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Leticia A. M. Carneiro
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Jeffrey Downey
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Jessica Tsalikis
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Ahmed Outlioua
- INSERM U1197, Hôpital Paul Brousse, Bâtiment Lavoisier, 94807 Villejuif Cedex, France
- Molecular Genetics and Immunophysiopathology Research Team, Health and Environment Laboratory, Aïn Chock Faculty of Sciences, Hassan II University of Casablanca, Casablanca, Morocco
| | - Dave Prescott
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | | | - Elise S. Hovingh
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Armin Farahvash
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Ryan G. Gaudet
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Raphael Molinaro
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Rob van Dalen
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Charles C. Y. Lau
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Farshad C. Azimi
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | | | | | - Jeffrey E. Lee
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Scott D. Gray-Owen
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Maziar Divangahi
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Jane-Jane Chen
- Institute of Medical Engineering and Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Dana J. Philpott
- Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Damien Arnoult
- INSERM U1197, Hôpital Paul Brousse, Bâtiment Lavoisier, 94807 Villejuif Cedex, France
| | - Stephen E. Girardin
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
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9
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van Dalen R, Fuchsberger FF, Rademacher C, van Strijp JAG, van Sorge NM. A Common Genetic Variation in Langerin (CD207) Compromises Cellular Uptake of Staphylococcus aureus. J Innate Immun 2019; 12:191-200. [PMID: 31141812 DOI: 10.1159/000500547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2018] [Accepted: 04/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Langerhans cells are key sentinel cells of the skin and mucosal lining. They sense microorganisms through their repertoire of pattern-recognition receptors to mount and direct appropriate immune responses. We recently demonstrated that human Langerhans cells interact with the Gram-positive pathogen Staphylococcus aureus through the Langerhans cell-specific receptor langerin (CD207). It was previously hypothesized that two linked single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs; N288D and K313I) in the carbohydrate recognition domain of langerin would affect interaction with microorganisms. We show that recognition of S. aureus by recombinant langerin molecules is abrogated in the co-inheriting SNP variant, which is mainly explained by the N288D SNP and further enhanced by K313I. Moreover, introduction of SNP N288D in ectopically-expressed langerin affected cellular distribution of the receptor such that langerin displayed enhanced plasma membraneexpression. Despite this increased binding of S. aureus by the langerin double SNP variant, uptake of bacteria by this langerin variant was compromised. Our findings indicate that in a proportion of the human population, the recognition and uptake of S. aureus by Langerhans cells may be affected, which could have important consequences for proper immune activation and S. aureus-associated disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rob van Dalen
- Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Felix F Fuchsberger
- Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Department of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Christoph Rademacher
- Department of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Jos A G van Strijp
- Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Nina M van Sorge
- Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands,
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10
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Wamhoff EC, Schulze J, Bellmann L, Rentzsch M, Bachem G, Fuchsberger FF, Rademacher J, Hermann M, Del Frari B, van Dalen R, Hartmann D, van Sorge NM, Seitz O, Stoitzner P, Rademacher C. A Specific, Glycomimetic Langerin Ligand for Human Langerhans Cell Targeting. ACS Cent Sci 2019; 5:808-820. [PMID: 31139717 PMCID: PMC6535779 DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.9b00093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2019] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Langerhans cells are a subset of dendritic cells residing in the epidermis of the human skin. As such, they are key mediators of immune regulation and have emerged as prime targets for novel transcutaneous cancer vaccines. Importantly, the induction of protective T cell immunity by these vaccines requires the efficient and specific delivery of both tumor-associated antigens and adjuvants. Langerhans cells uniquely express Langerin (CD207), an endocytic C-type lectin receptor. Here, we report the discovery of a specific, glycomimetic Langerin ligand employing a heparin-inspired design strategy and structural characterization by NMR spectroscopy and molecular docking. The conjugation of this glycomimetic to liposomes enabled the specific and efficient targeting of Langerhans cells in the human skin. We further demonstrate the doxorubicin-mediated killing of a Langerin+ monocyte cell line, highlighting its therapeutic and diagnostic potential in Langerhans cell histiocytosis, caused by the abnormal proliferation of Langerin+ myeloid progenitor cells. Overall, our delivery platform provides superior versatility over antibody-based approaches and novel modalities to overcome current limitations of dendritic cell-targeted immuno- and chemotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eike-Christian Wamhoff
- Department
of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute
of Colloids and Interfaces, 14424 Potsdam, Germany
- Department
of Biology, Chemistry and Pharmacy, Freie
Universität Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Jessica Schulze
- Department
of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute
of Colloids and Interfaces, 14424 Potsdam, Germany
- Department
of Biology, Chemistry and Pharmacy, Freie
Universität Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Lydia Bellmann
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, Department of Anesthesiology
and Intensive Care Medicine, and Department of Plastic, Reconstructive and
Aesthetic Surgery, Medical University of
Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Mareike Rentzsch
- Department
of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute
of Colloids and Interfaces, 14424 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Gunnar Bachem
- Department
of Chemistry, Humboldt-Universität
zu Berlin, 12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - Felix F. Fuchsberger
- Department
of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute
of Colloids and Interfaces, 14424 Potsdam, Germany
- Medical
Microbiology, University Medical Center
Utrecht, Utrecht University, 3584 CX Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Juliane Rademacher
- Department
of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute
of Colloids and Interfaces, 14424 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Martin Hermann
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, Department of Anesthesiology
and Intensive Care Medicine, and Department of Plastic, Reconstructive and
Aesthetic Surgery, Medical University of
Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Barbara Del Frari
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, Department of Anesthesiology
and Intensive Care Medicine, and Department of Plastic, Reconstructive and
Aesthetic Surgery, Medical University of
Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Rob van Dalen
- Medical
Microbiology, University Medical Center
Utrecht, Utrecht University, 3584 CX Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - David Hartmann
- Department
of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute
of Colloids and Interfaces, 14424 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Nina M. van Sorge
- Medical
Microbiology, University Medical Center
Utrecht, Utrecht University, 3584 CX Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Oliver Seitz
- Department
of Chemistry, Humboldt-Universität
zu Berlin, 12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - Patrizia Stoitzner
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, Department of Anesthesiology
and Intensive Care Medicine, and Department of Plastic, Reconstructive and
Aesthetic Surgery, Medical University of
Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Christoph Rademacher
- Department
of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute
of Colloids and Interfaces, 14424 Potsdam, Germany
- Department
of Biology, Chemistry and Pharmacy, Freie
Universität Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany
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11
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Sorbara MT, Foerster EG, Tsalikis J, Abdel-Nour M, Mangiapane J, Sirluck-Schroeder I, Tattoli I, van Dalen R, Isenman DE, Rohde JR, Girardin SE, Philpott DJ. Complement C3 Drives Autophagy-Dependent Restriction of Cyto-invasive Bacteria. Cell Host Microbe 2018; 23:644-652.e5. [PMID: 29746835 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2018.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2017] [Revised: 01/30/2018] [Accepted: 04/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
In physiological settings, the complement protein C3 is deposited on all bacteria, including invasive pathogens. However, because experimental host-bacteria systems typically use decomplemented serum to avoid the lytic action of complement, the impact of C3 coating on epithelial cell responses to invasive bacteria remains unexplored. Here, we demonstrate that following invasion, intracellular C3-positive Listeria monocytogenes is targeted by autophagy through a direct C3/ATG16L1 interaction, resulting in autophagy-dependent bacterial growth restriction. In contrast, Shigella flexneri and Salmonella Typhimurium escape autophagy-mediated growth restriction in part through the action of bacterial outer membrane proteases that cleave bound C3. Upon oral infection with Listeria, C3-deficient mice displayed defective clearance at the intestinal mucosa. Together, these results demonstrate an intracellular role of complement in triggering antibacterial autophagy and immunity against intracellular pathogens. Since C3 indiscriminately associates with foreign surfaces, the C3-ATG16L1 interaction may provide a universal mechanism of xenophagy initiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew T Sorbara
- Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada; Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
| | | | - Jessica Tsalikis
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Mena Abdel-Nour
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Joseph Mangiapane
- Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
| | | | - Ivan Tattoli
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Rob van Dalen
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - David E Isenman
- Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada; Department of Biochemistry, University of Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - John R Rohde
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H4R2, Canada
| | - Stephen E Girardin
- Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada; Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Dana J Philpott
- Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada.
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12
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Lopes F, Keita ÅV, Saxena A, Reyes JL, Mancini NL, Al Rajabi A, Wang A, Baggio CH, Dicay M, van Dalen R, Ahn Y, Carneiro MBH, Peters NC, Rho JM, MacNaughton WK, Girardin SE, Jijon H, Philpott DJ, Söderholm JD, McKay DM. ER-stress mobilization of death-associated protein kinase-1-dependent xenophagy counteracts mitochondria stress-induced epithelial barrier dysfunction. J Biol Chem 2018; 293:3073-3087. [PMID: 29317503 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra117.000809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2017] [Revised: 12/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The gut microbiome contributes to inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), in which bacteria can be present within the epithelium. Epithelial barrier function is decreased in IBD, and dysfunctional epithelial mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress have been individually associated with IBD. We therefore hypothesized that the combination of ER and mitochondrial stresses significantly disrupt epithelial barrier function. Here, we treated human colonic biopsies, epithelial colonoids, and epithelial cells with an uncoupler of oxidative phosphorylation, dinitrophenol (DNP), with or without the ER stressor tunicamycin and assessed epithelial barrier function by monitoring internalization and translocation of commensal bacteria. We also examined barrier function and colitis in mice exposed to dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) or DNP and co-treated with DAPK6, an inhibitor of death-associated protein kinase 1 (DAPK1). Contrary to our hypothesis, induction of ER stress (i.e. the unfolded protein response) protected against decreased barrier function caused by the disruption of mitochondrial function. ER stress did not prevent DNP-driven uptake of bacteria; rather, specific mobilization of the ATF6 arm of ER stress and recruitment of DAPK1 resulted in enhanced autophagic killing (xenophagy) of bacteria. Of note, epithelia with a Crohn's disease-susceptibility mutation in the autophagy gene ATG16L1 exhibited less xenophagy. Systemic delivery of the DAPK1 inhibitor DAPK6 increased bacterial translocation in DSS- or DNP-treated mice. We conclude that promoting ER stress-ATF6-DAPK1 signaling in transporting enterocytes counters the transcellular passage of bacteria evoked by dysfunctional mitochondria, thereby reducing the potential for metabolic stress to reactivate or perpetuate inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Lopes
- From the Gastrointestinal Research Group, Departments of Physiology and Pharmacology and
| | - Åsa V Keita
- the Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Division of Surgery, Linköping University, Linköping 581 83, Sweden, and
| | - Alpana Saxena
- From the Gastrointestinal Research Group, Departments of Physiology and Pharmacology and
| | - Jose Luis Reyes
- From the Gastrointestinal Research Group, Departments of Physiology and Pharmacology and
| | - Nicole L Mancini
- From the Gastrointestinal Research Group, Departments of Physiology and Pharmacology and
| | - Ala Al Rajabi
- From the Gastrointestinal Research Group, Departments of Physiology and Pharmacology and
| | - Arthur Wang
- From the Gastrointestinal Research Group, Departments of Physiology and Pharmacology and
| | - Cristiane H Baggio
- From the Gastrointestinal Research Group, Departments of Physiology and Pharmacology and
| | - Michael Dicay
- From the Gastrointestinal Research Group, Departments of Physiology and Pharmacology and
| | - Rob van Dalen
- the Departments of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology and
| | - Younghee Ahn
- the Departments of Pediatrics, Clinical Neurosciences, and Physiology and Pharmacology and
| | - Matheus B H Carneiro
- the Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta T2N4N1, Canada
| | - Nathan C Peters
- the Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta T2N4N1, Canada
| | - Jong M Rho
- the Departments of Pediatrics, Clinical Neurosciences, and Physiology and Pharmacology and
| | - Wallace K MacNaughton
- From the Gastrointestinal Research Group, Departments of Physiology and Pharmacology and
| | | | - Humberto Jijon
- Medicine, Calvin, Joan, and Phoebe Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, and
| | - Dana J Philpott
- Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S1A1, Canada
| | - Johan D Söderholm
- the Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Division of Surgery, Linköping University, Linköping 581 83, Sweden, and
| | - Derek M McKay
- From the Gastrointestinal Research Group, Departments of Physiology and Pharmacology and
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