Genomics-based higher classification of the species-rich Hairstreaks (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae: Eumaeini)

We propose a higher classification of the lycaenid hairstreak tribe Eumaeini - one of the youngest and most species-rich butterfly tribes - based on autosome, Lepidopteran Z sex chromosome, and mitochondrial protein-coding genes. The subtribe Neolycaenina Korb is a synonym of Callophryidina Tutt, and subtribe Tmolusina Bálint is a synonym of Strephonotina K. Johnson, Austin, Le Crom, & Salazar. Proposed names are Rhammina Prieto & Busby, new subtribe; Timaetina Busby & Prieto, new subtribe; Atlidina Martins & Duarte, new subtribe; Evenina Faynel & Grishin, new subtribe; Jantheclina Robbins & Faynel, new subtribe; Paiwarriina Lamas & Robbins, new subtribe; Cupatheclina Lamas & Grishin, new subtribe; Parrhasiina Busby & Robbins, new subtribe; Ipideclina Martins & Grishin, new subtribe; and Trichonidina Duarte & Faynel, new subtribe. Phylogenetic results from the autosome and Z sex chromosome analyses are similar. Future analyses of datasets with hundreds of terminal taxa may be more practical time-wise by focussing on the smaller number of sex chromosome sequences (2.6% of nuclear protein-coding sequences). The phylogenetic classification and biological summaries for each subtribe suggest that a variety of factors affected Eumaeini diversification. About a dozen kinds of male secondary sexual organs with frequent evolutionary gains and losses occur in Atlidina, Evenina, and Jantheclina (141 species combined). Females have been shown to use these organs to discriminate between conspecific and non-conspecific males, facilitating sympatry among close relatives. Eumaeina, Rhammina, and Timaetina (140 species combined) are overwhelmingly montane with some evidence for a higher incidence of sympatric diversification. Seven Neotropical lineages in five subtribes invaded the temperate parts of the Nearctic Region with a diversification increase in the Callophryidina (262 species). North American Satyrium and Callophrys then invaded the Palearctic at least once each, with a major species-richness increase in Satyrium. The evolution of litter feeding detritivores within Calycopidina (172 species) resulted in an increase in diversification rate compared with its flower-feeding sister lineage. Atlidina, Strephonotina, Parrhasiina, and Strymonina (562 species combined) each contain a mixture of genera that specialize on one or two caterpillar food plant families and genera that are polyphagous. These would be appropriate subtribes to assess how the breadth of caterpillar food plants and the frequency of host shifts affected diversification.

Evolutionary trade-offs between male secondary sexual traits revealed by a phylogeny of the hyperdiverse tribe Eumaeini (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae)

Male butterflies in the hyperdiverse tribe Eumaeini possess an unusually complex and diverse repertoire of secondary sexual characteristics involved in pheromone production and dissemination. Maintaining multiple sexually selected traits is likely to be metabolically costly, potentially resulting in trade-offs in the evolution of male signals. However, a phylogenetic framework to test hypotheses regarding the evolution and maintenance of male sexual traits in Eumaeini has been lacking. Here, we infer a comprehensive, time-calibrated phylogeny from 379 loci for 187 species representing 91% of the 87 described genera. Eumaeini is a monophyletic group that originated in the late Oligocene and underwent rapid radiation in the Neotropics. We examined specimens of 818 of the 1096 described species (75%) and found that secondary sexual traits are present in males of 91% of the surveyed species. Scent pads and scent patches on the wings and brush organs associated with the genitalia were probably present in the common ancestor of Eumaeini and are widespread throughout the tribe. Brush organs and scent pads are negatively correlated across the phylogeny, exhibiting a trade-off in which lineages with brush organs are unlikely to regain scent pads and vice versa. In contrast, scent patches seem to facilitate the evolution of scent pads, although they are readily lost once scent pads have evolved. Our results illustrate the complex interplay between natural and sexual selection in the origin and maintenance of multiple male secondary sexual characteristics and highlight the potential role of sexual selection spurring diversification in this lineage.

Male secondary sexual structures and the systematics of the Thereus oppia species group (Lepidoptera, Lycaenidae, Eumaeini)

The Thereusoppia species group includes species with and without a scent pad, which is a histologically and morphologically characterized male secondary sexual structure on the dorsal surface of the forewing. To assess the hypothesis that these structures are lost evolutionarily, but not regained (Dollo’s Law), the taxonomy of this species group is revised. Thereuslomalargasp. n., and Thereusbrockisp. n., are described. Diagnostic traits, especially male secondary structures, within the Thereusoppia species group are illustrated. Distributional and biological information is summarized for each species. Three species have been reared, and the caterpillars eat Loranthaceae. An inferred phylogeny is consistent with the hypothesis that scent pads in the Thereusoppia species group have been lost evolutionarily twice (in allopatry), and not re-gained.

Matrix detachment and proteasomal inhibitors diminish Sulf-2 expression in breast cancer cell lines and mouse xenografts

Sulfatase 2 (Sulf-2) has been previously shown to be upregulated in breast cancer. Sulf-2 removes sulfate moieties on heparan sulfate proteoglycans which in turn modulate heparin binding growth factor signaling. Here we report that matrix detachment resulted in decreased Sulf-2 expression in breast cancer cells and increased cleavage of poly ADP-ribose polymerase. Silencing of Sulf-2 promotes matrix detachment induced cell death in MCF10DCIS cells. In an attempt to identify Sulf-2 specific inhibitor, we found that proteasomal inhibitors such as MG132, Lactacystin and Bortezomib treatment abolished Sulf-2 expression in multiple breast cancer cell lines. Additionally, we show that Bortezomib treatment of MCF10DCIS cell xenografts in mouse mammary fat pads significantly reduced tumor size, caused massive apoptosis and more importantly reduced Sulf-2 levels in vivo. Finally, our immunohistochemistry analysis of Sulf-2 expression in cohort of patient derived breast tumors indicates that Sulf-2 is significantly upregulated in autologous metastatic lesions compared to primary tumors (p < 0.037, Pearson correlation, Chi-Square analysis). In all, our data suggest that Sulf-2 might play an important role in breast cancer progression from ductal carcinoma in situ into an invasive ductal carcinoma potentially by resisting cell death.

Review of the species level taxonomy of the neotropical butterfly genus Oenomaus (Lycaenidae, Theclinae, Eumaeini)

Seven new species of the Neotropical hairstreak genus Oenomaus are described: Oenomaus mancha Busby & Faynel, sp. n. (type locality Ecuador); Oenomaus gwenish Robbins & Faynel, sp. n. (type locality Panama); Oenomaus lea Faynel & Robbins, sp. n. (type locality Ecuador); Oenomaus myrteana Busby, Robbins & Faynel, sp. n. (type locality Ecuador); Oenomaus mentirosa Faynel & Robbins, sp. n. (type locality Peru); Oenomaus andi Busby & Faynel, sp. n. (type locality Ecuador) and Oenomaus moseri Robbins & Faynel, sp. n. (type locality Brazil, Santa Catarina). For each new Oenomaus species, we present diagnostic characters and notes on its habitat and biology. We illustrate adults, genitalia, and distribution. New distributional and biological data are presented for 21 previously described Oenomaus species. Oenomaus melleus guyanensis Faynel, 2008 is treated as a new synonym of Oenomaus melleus melleus (Druce, 1907). Females are described and associated with males for ten species using a variety of factors, including mitochondrial COI DNA “barcode” sequences. We summarize the reasons why the number of recognized Oenomaus species has grown in the past decade from one species to 28 species. Finally, we overview the habitats that Oenomaus species occupy and note that the agricultural pest on Annonaceae, Oenomaus ortygnus, is the only Oenomaus species that regularly occurs in greatly disturbed habitats.

Characterization of the X-linked murine centrin Cetn2 gene

A multi-gene family (Cetn1, Cetn2, and Cetn3) encodes the calcium-binding protein, centrin, in the mouse. This work characterizes the Cetn2 gene. Structurally, Cetn2 consists of five exons and four introns, and contains a classical TATA-less promoter. Cetn2 has two alternate transcription start sites, and a single length 3' untranslated region. Fluorescence in situ hybridization demonstrates that Cetn2 is an X-linked gene whose alleles replicate asynchronously during S-phase. Cetn2 encodes a 172 amino acid protein, with a predicted molecular mass of 19,795 Da (pI=4.71), that contains all of the defining characteristics of centrin. Northern blot analysis indicates that Cetn2 is ubiquitously expressed in the tissues of adult mice. RT-PCR shows that Cetn2 and Cetn3, but not Cetn1, are expressed in NIH 3T3 cells. Immunofluorescence microscopy demonstrates that mouse centrin 2 protein localizes to the region immediately surrounding the centrioles in the centrosome of NIH 3T3 cells.

Expression and purification of two isozymes of clavaminate synthase and initial characterization of the iron binding site. General error analysis in polymerase chain reaction amplification

Clavaminate synthase is an Fe(2+)-, O2-, and alpha-ketoglutarate-dependent oxygenase that catalyzes three transformations in the biosynthesis of the important beta-lactamase inhibitor clavulanic acid. The genes from Streptomyces clavuligerus encoding two isoenzymes of clavaminate synthase have been over-expressed in Escherichia coli to give soluble proteins whose reactions, kinetic properties, and molecular masses are in excellent agreement with the wild-type isozymes. Preliminary investigation of the active site of clavaminate synthase was undertaken using diethyl pyrocarbonate and N-ethylmaleimide. Each was inhibitory to catalytic activity. Protection from inactivation in the presence of these reagents by Fe2+, O2, and alpha-ketoglutaric acid was thwarted by the rapid self-inactivation of the enzyme in the absence of substrate. However, protection was achieved when Co2+, a potent competitive inhibitor of clavaminate synthase 2 with respect to Fe2+, was substituted. This is consistent with the presence of histidine and cysteine, respectively, at or near the active site and possibly involved in iron binding. In the course of constructing the expression vector, a simply applied general error analysis of the polymerase chain reaction was formulated to calculate the proportion of correctly replicated DNA and guide the design of experiments using this method.

Perineal hidradenitis suppurativa: presentation of two unusual complications and a review

Two patients with advanced perineal hidradenitis suppurativa, complicated by fecal incontinence and squamous cell carcinoma, are presented. The first patient was a 58-year-old man who had a 30-year history of chronic recurring perianal abscesses and perineal sinuses. At the time of presentation, he had extensive perineal suppurative disease, and scarring and fixation of the anal sphincters with resultant fecal incontinence. He was treated with wide excision and skin graft closure. The second patient was a 27-year-old man with an 11-year history of recurrent gluteal abscesses and perineal sinuses. At the time of presentation, his inflammatory disease was only mildly active, but he had a nonhealing gluteal lesion. The nonhealing lesion was diagnosed as a squamous cell carcinoma and was managed with wide excision and primary closure. The inflammatory disease was excised and grafted. Complications of advanced hidradenitis suppurativa can be debilitating and life threatening. We review the etiology, pathophysiology, complications, and treatment options of hidradenitis suppurativa, including a literature review of the association with malignancy. We propose that the incidence of disabilities and complications may be reduced by early diagnosis and treatment, by emphasis on prevention of recurrence, and by more aggressive surgical intervention for recurrent and extensive disease.

Improved imaging of the augmented breast

The breast containing an augmentation implant presents a challenge to the mammographer and is often considered unsuitable for adequate mammographic evaluation. A modified positioning technique is described. By displacing the implant posteriorly against the chest wall and pulling breast tissue over and in front of the implant, marked improvement in compression and visualization of substantially more breast tissue is achieved. Over 250 patients with augmentation implants have been successfully studied with this modified compression technique. After review of 50 consecutive cases, two experienced mammographers confirmed a significant improvement in image quality, amount of breast tissue visualized, and overall benefit of the modified technique. Modified positioning for women with breast implants substantially improves both image quality and amount of breast tissue imaged.

A mathematical overview of a computer simulation model of maternity histories with illustrative examples

A mathematical overview of a stochastic computer simulation model of maternity histories is provided. Various components of human reproduction are accommodated in the model through distributions of waiting times among live births. Included in these components are distributions of age at first marriage in a cohort of women, waiting times to pregnancy for fecundable women, and the lengths of infecundable periods following live births. Probabilities that pregnancies end in either a live birth, induced abortion, or some other type of outcome are also included. Elements of renewal theory and semi-Markov processes in discrete time were the basic mathematical concepts used in the construction of the model. A brief description of an interactive software package called MATHIST, which may be used to implement the model on a computer, is also included. Four illustrative computer runs with MATHIST, pertinent to the operation of family planning programmes in Africa, are also described and discussed.