Mitochondrial DNA mutations drive aerobic glycolysis to enhance checkpoint blockade response in melanoma

The mitochondrial genome (mtDNA) encodes essential machinery for oxidative phosphorylation and metabolic homeostasis. Tumor mtDNA is among the most somatically mutated regions of the cancer genome, but whether these mutations impact tumor biology is debated. We engineered truncating mutations of the mtDNA-encoded complex I gene, Mt-Nd5, into several murine models of melanoma. These mutations promoted a Warburg-like metabolic shift that reshaped tumor microenvironments in both mice and humans, consistently eliciting an anti-tumor immune response characterized by loss of resident neutrophils. Tumors bearing mtDNA mutations were sensitized to checkpoint blockade in a neutrophil-dependent manner, with induction of redox imbalance being sufficient to induce this effect in mtDNA wild-type tumors. Patient lesions bearing >50% mtDNA mutation heteroplasmy demonstrated a response rate to checkpoint blockade that was improved by ~2.5-fold over mtDNA wild-type cancer. These data nominate mtDNA mutations as functional regulators of cancer metabolism and tumor biology, with potential for therapeutic exploitation and treatment stratification.

Tumour mitochondrial DNA mutations drive aerobic glycolysis to enhance checkpoint blockade

The mitochondrial genome encodes essential machinery for respiration and metabolic homeostasis but is paradoxically among the most common targets of somatic mutation in the cancer genome, with truncating mutations in respiratory complex I genes being most over-represented1. While mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) mutations have been associated with both improved and worsened prognoses in several tumour lineages1-3, whether these mutations are drivers or exert any functional effect on tumour biology remains controversial. Here we discovered that complex I-encoding mtDNA mutations are sufficient to remodel the tumour immune landscape and therapeutic resistance to immune checkpoint blockade. Using mtDNA base editing technology4 we engineered recurrent truncating mutations in the mtDNA-encoded complex I gene, Mt-Nd5, into murine models of melanoma. Mechanistically, these mutations promoted utilisation of pyruvate as a terminal electron acceptor and increased glycolytic flux without major effects on oxygen consumption, driven by an over-reduced NAD pool and NADH shuttling between GAPDH and MDH1, mediating a Warburg-like metabolic shift. In turn, without modifying tumour growth, this altered cancer cell-intrinsic metabolism reshaped the tumour microenvironment in both mice and humans, promoting an anti-tumour immune response characterised by loss of resident neutrophils. This subsequently sensitised tumours bearing high mtDNA mutant heteroplasmy to immune checkpoint blockade, with phenocopy of key metabolic changes being sufficient to mediate this effect. Strikingly, patient lesions bearing >50% mtDNA mutation heteroplasmy also demonstrated a >2.5-fold improved response rate to checkpoint inhibitor blockade. Taken together these data nominate mtDNA mutations as functional regulators of cancer metabolism and tumour biology, with potential for therapeutic exploitation and treatment stratification.

Starting young? Children's experiences of trying smoking during pre-adolescence

Although the risks smoking poses to health are now well known, many young people continue to take up the habit. While numerous cross-sectional studies of adolescents have identified correlates of smoking initiation, much less prospective, longitudinal research has been conducted with young children to gather their accounts of early experiences of smoking, and this study fills that significant gap. Quantitative and qualitative data, collected using questionnaires, interviews and focus groups, are presented from the pre-adolescent phase of the Liverpool Longitudinal Study of Smoking. By age 11, 27% of the cohort had tried smoking, 13% had smoked repeatedly and 3% were smoking regularly. Rates of experimentation increased over time. Qualitative data revealed that curiosity and the role of peers were central to children's accounts of early smoking. By pre-adolescence, children are at different stages in their smoking careers, therefore interventions must be targeted to their varied experiences. Current prevention strategies often focus on restricting access to cigarettes, but a broad range of intervention measures is required which take account of the multifactorial nature of smoking onset. To be effective, policies that aim to prevent smoking must be grounded in children's lived experiences.

Simultaneous measurement of rat brain cortex PtO2using EPR oximetry and a fluorescence fiber-optic sensor during normoxia and hyperoxia

Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) oximetry is a promising, relatively non-invasive method of monitoring tissue partial pressure of oxygen (PtO(2)) that has proven useful in following changes in PtO(2) under various physiologic and pathophysiologic conditions. Optimal utilization of the method will be facilitated by systematic comparisons with other available methods. Here, we report on the absolute values and changes of rat brain PtO(2) using EPR oximetry and the OxyLite, an oxygen monitor based on fluorescence quenching, at adjacent locations in the same brain. EPR oximetry utilizes an implanted oxygen-sensitive material and reports tissue PtO(2) at the surface of the material. OxyLite measures PtO(2) using the fluorescence lifetime of a chromophore fixed to the tip of an optical fiber that is inserted into tissue. Measurements were made at a depth of 2-3 mm into the cortex during normoxia and during breathing of carbogen (95% O(2):5% CO(2)) followed by a return to normoxia. We conclude that in this study (1) PtO(2) values reported by the two methods are similar but not exactly the same, (2) both methods can record a baseline and rapid changes in PtO(2), (3) changes in PtO(2) induced by increasing FiO(2) from 0.26 to 0.95 (carbogen) were similar by the two methods and (4) in some rats breathing carbogen, absolute values of PtO(2) were above the sensitive range of the OxyLite method.

Endogenous NO regulates superoxide production at low oxygen concentrations by modifying the redox state of cytochrome c oxidase

We have investigated in whole cells whether, at low oxygen concentrations ([O(2)]), endogenous nitric oxide (NO) modulates the redox state of the mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC), and whether such an action has any signaling consequences. Using a polarographic-and-spectroscopic-coupled system, we monitored redox changes in the ETC cytochromes b(H), cc(1), and aa(3) during cellular respiration. The rate of O(2) consumption (VO(2)) remained constant until [O(2)] fell below 15 microM, whereas the onset of reduction of cytochromes aa(3), part of the terminal ETC enzyme cytochrome c oxidase, occurred at approximately 50 microM O(2). Incubation of the cells with an inhibitor of NO synthase lowered significantly (P < 0.05) the [O(2)] at which reduction of the cytochromes occurred. We also measured intracellular superoxide (O(2)(-)) production at different [O(2)] and found there was no increase in O(2)(-) generation in control cells, or those treated with the NO synthase inhibitor, when incubated at 21% O(2). However, after 30-min exposure of control cells to 3% O(2), an increase in O(2)(-) generation was observed, accompanied by translocation to the nucleus of the transcription factor NF-kappa B. Both of these responses were diminished by NO synthase inhibition. Our results suggest that endogenous NO, by enhancing the reduction of ETC cytochromes, contributes to a mechanism by which cells maintain their VO(2) at low [O(2)]. This, in turn, favors the release of O(2)(-), which initiates the transcriptional activation of NF-kappa B as an early signaling stress response.

Monitoring cytochrome redox changes in the mitochondria of intact cells using multi-wavelength visible light spectroscopy

We have developed an optical system based on visible light spectroscopy for the continuous study of changes in the redox states of mitochondrial cytochromes in intact mammalian cells. Cells are suspended in a closed incubation chamber in which oxygen and nitric oxide (NO) concentrations can be monitored during respiration. Simultaneously the cells are illuminated with a broad-band tungsten-halogen light source. Emergent light in the visible region (from 490-650 nm) is detected using a spectrophotometer and charge-coupled device camera system. Intensity spectra are then converted into changes in optical attenuation from a 'steady-state' baseline. The oxidised-minus-reduced absorption spectra of the mitochondrial cytochromes are fitted to the attenuation spectra using a multi-wavelength least-squares algorithm. Thus, the system can measure changes in the redox states of the cytochromes during cellular respiration. Here we describe this novel methodology and demonstrate its validity by monitoring the action of known respiratory chain inhibitors, including the endogenous signalling molecule NO, on cytochrome redox states in human leukocytes.

The Oxygen Dependency of Cerebral Oxidative Metabolism in the Newborn Piglet Studied with 31P NMRS and NIRS

Mean cerebral saturation and changes in the oxidation state of the CuA centre of cytochrome oxidase were measured by near infra-red spectroscopy simultaneously with phosphorous metabolites and intracellular pH measured using 31P NMR spectroscopy during transient anoxia (inspired oxygen fraction = 0.0 for 105 seconds) in the newborn piglet brain. By collecting high quality 31P spectra every 10 seconds, it was possible to resolve the delay between the onset of anoxia and the fall in PCr and to show that the CuA centre of cytochrome oxidase reduced simultaneously with the fall in PCr. From these observations it is concluded that, at normoxia, oxygen tension at the mitochondrial level is substantially above a critical value at which oxidative metabolism becomes oxygen dependent.

Utility and limitations of near-infrared spectroscopy during cardiopulmonary bypass in a piglet model

Near-infrared spectroscopy assessment of cytochrome oxygenation could be a valuable technique to monitor cerebral intraneuronal oxygen delivery during cardiopulmonary bypass. However, the validity of the cytochrome signal has been questioned as it could easily be overwhelmed by the Hb signal. Five- to six-week-old control piglets (n = 5) underwent cardiopulmonary bypass at 37 degrees C. Study animals (n = 10) received 100 mg/kg of sodium cyanide to uncouple cytochrome from HB: Hematocrit was then decreased in steps of 5% from 35 to 5% with crystalloid hemodilution. In study piglets, the initiation of cardiopulmonary bypass was associated with oxygenated Hb increasing from 0 to 62.9 +/- 25.6 microM times the differential path-length factor, and oxidized cytochrome a,a3 increasing to 1.9 +/- 1.8 microM times the differential path-length factor. Cyanide caused oxygenated Hb to increase further to 132.3 +/- 48.9 microM times the differential path-length factor, and oxidized cytochrome c decreased to -7.0 +/- 2.6 microM times the differential path-length factor as anticipated, confirming uncoupling of electron transport. However, hemodilution subsequently resulted in linear decreases in oxidized cytochrome a,a3 (F = 8.57, p < 0.001) suggesting important cross-talk between the Hb and cytochrome signals as cytochrome is only intracellular. In control piglets, tissue oxygenation index showed a positive correlation with pump flow (r = 0.986, p = 0.013). The cytochrome signal as presently measured by near-infrared spectroscopy is highly dependent on hematocrit.