Factors associated with student performance on the medical residency test

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether the scores of the Progress test, the Skills and Attitude test, and the medical internship are correlated with the medical residency exam performance of students who started medical school at the Federal University of São Paulo in 2009.

METHODS

The scores of 684 Progress tests from years 1-6 of medical school, 111 Skills and Attitude exams (5th year), 228 performance coefficients for the 5th and 6th years of internship, and 211 scores on the medical residency exam were analyzed longitudinally. Correlations between scores were assessed by Pearson's correlation. Factors associated with medical residency scores were analyzed by linear regression.

RESULTS

Scores of Progress tests from years 1-6 and the Skills and Attitude test showed at least one moderate and significant correlation with each other. The theoretical exam and final exam scores in the medical residency had a moderate correlation with performance in the internship. The score of the theoretical medical residency exam was associated with performance in internship year 6 (β=0.833; p<0.001), and the final medical residency exam score was associated with the Skills and Attitude score (β=0.587; p<0.001), 5th-year internship score, (β=0.060; p=0.025), and 6th-year Progress test score (β=0.038; p=0.061).

CONCLUSIONS

The scores of these tests showed significant correlations. The medical residency exam scores were positively associated with the student's performance in the internship and on the Skills test, with a tendency for the final medical residency exam score to be associated with the 6th-year Progress test.

Fatores associados ao excesso de peso e baixa estatura em escolares nascidos com baixo peso

Resumo O objetivo deste artigo é avaliar a condição nutricional de crianças com baixo peso ao nascer (BPN) e possíveis associações com variáveis independentes maternas, sexo e antecedentes neonatais Estudo transversal com 544 escolares com BPN (5 a 10 anos de idade) da região metropolitana de São Paulo. Variáveis: dados neonatais das declarações de nascidos vivos (peso ao nascer e idade gestacional), informações sobre a gestação e a condição nutricional atual das mães. A avaliação da condição nutricional dos escolares foi realizada por meio da obtenção dos dados de peso e estatura utilizados cálculo do escore z da estatura/idade (ZEI) e índice de massa corporal (ZIMC). Observou-se baixa estatura; sobrepeso e obesidade em 6,2%, 8,6% e 12,3% das crianças avaliadas, respectivamente. A presença de baixa estatura nos escolares associou-se com estatura materna < 150 cm (OR = 6,94; IC95% 2,34–20,6). O sobrepeso/obesidade nas crianças com BPN associou-se de forma independente com o sobrepeso/obesidade da mãe (OR = 2,40; IC95% 1,44–4,01) e o sexo masculino (OR = 1,77; IC95% 1,06–2,95). Um quinto dos escolares com BPN apresentaram excesso de peso, que se associou à condição nutricional materna atual e ao gênero masculino; a baixa estatura associou-se à estatura materna.

A cross-sectional study assessing the pharyngeal carriage of Neisseria meningitidis in subjects aged 1-24 years in the city of Embu das Artes, São Paulo, Brazil

Meningococcal carriage is a prerequisite for invasive infection. This cross-sectional study assessed the pharyngeal carriage prevalence in healthy subjects aged 1-24 years in Embu das Artes city, São Paulo, Brazil. Pharyngeal swabs were examined for the presence of Neisseria meningitidis. The isolates were tested for different serogroups using agglutination and polymerase chain reaction. A logistic regression model assessed any independent association between Neisseria meningitidis carriage and various risk factors. A total of 87/967 subjects (9%, 95% Confidence Interval (CI): 7.3-11.0) tested positive for N. meningitidis: 6.2% (95% CI: 3.8-9.4) in 1-4 years, 8.5% (95% CI: 5.1-13.0) in 5-9 years, 12.5% (95% CI: 7.8-18.6) in 10-14 years, 12.6% (95% CI: 7.4-19.7) in 15-19 years and 9% (95% CI: 4.9-14.9) in 20-24 years age groups. Highest carriage prevalence was observed in adolescents 10-19 years old. Serogroup C was predominant (18.4%) followed by serogroup B (12.6%). The 15-19 years age group showed a significant association between number of household members and carriers of N. meningitidis. This cross-sectional study is the first in Brazil to evaluate meningococcal carriage prevalence and associated factors in a wide age range.

Care needs of children with disabilities – Use of the Pediatric Evaluation of Disability Inventory

Objective:

Methods:

Results:

Conclusions:

Interpretation of ambiguities by schoolchildren with low birth weight from Embu das Artes, São Paulo state, Brazil

PURPOSE

To assess the development of language regarding the ability to recognize and interpret lexical ambiguity in low-birth-weight schoolchildren enrolled at the school system in the municipality of Embu das Artes, Sao Paulo state, compared with that of schoolchildren with normal birth weight.

METHODS

A case-control, retrospective, cross-sectional study conducted with 378 schoolchildren, both genders, aged 5 to 9.9 years, from the municipal schools of Embu das Artes. Study Group (SG) comprising 210 schoolchildren with birth weight < 2500 g. Control Group (CG) composed of 168 school children with birth weight ≥ 2500 g. Participants of both groups were compared with respect to the skills of recognition and verbal interpretation of sentences containing lexical ambiguity using the Test of Language Competence. Variables of interest: Age and gender of children; age and schooling of mothers. Statistical analysis: Descriptive analysis to characterize the sample and score per group; Student's t test for comparison between the total scores of each skill/subtest; Chi-square test to compare items within each subtest; multiple regression analysis for the intervening variables.

RESULTS

Participants of the SG presented lower scores for ambiguous sentences compared with those of participants of the CG. Multiple regression analysis showed that child's current age was a predictor for all metalinguistic skills regarding interpretation of ambiguities in both groups.

CONCLUSION

Participants of the SG presented lower specific and total scores than those of participants of the CG for ambiguity skills. The child's current age factor positively influenced the ambiguity skills in both groups.

Family history of cardiovascular disease and non-HDL cholesterol in prepubescent non-obese children

OBJECTIVE

To describe the values of non-HDL cholesterol (NHDL-c) and the frequency of a family history of early cardiovascular disease (family HCVD) in healthy prepubescent children. Analyze the association between NHDL-c and family HCVD, and possible associations with other risk factors for cardiovascular disease (CVD).

METHOD

Cross-sectional study including 269 prepubescent (aged 6-10 years) schoolchildren with a normal body mass index (+1SD<BMI>-2SD).

DATA COLLECTED

Family HCVD; weight and height, waist circumference and systemic blood pressure; lipid profile (total cholesterol TC, HDL-c, triglycerides and LDL-c), NHDL-c calculation (CT-HDL-c, cut-off = 145 mg/dL) and insulin resistance (HOMA-IR).

RESULTS

High levels were found for NHDL-c in 10 (3.7%) of these schoolchildren, and family early HCVD was found in 46 (17.1%) of them. There was a weak association between family HCVD and NHDL-c (Cramer's-V-test = 0.120; p=0.050). Among the children with NHDL-c≥145 mg/dL, 4 (40%) have family HCVD. The presence of family HCVD was not associated with the variables being studied. The variables independently associated with NHDL-c ≥ 145 mg/dL were: HOMA-IR (OR=1.7; 95CI 1.1-2.6) and diastolic blood pressure (OR=1.1; 95CI 1.02-1.2).

CONCLUSION

NHDL-c values were associated with blood pressure and insulin resistance. Family HCVD was not associated with other classic risk factors for CVD, even though the frequency found was five times higher than that of high NHDL-c.

Body mass index, adipokines and insulin resistance in asthmatic children and adolescents

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to describe the body mass index, insulin resistance, levels of adipokines and inflammatory markers in Brazilian asthmatic children and adolescents and to investigate their possible association with the severity and control of asthma.

METHODS

Cross-sectional study (n = 92; age: 3-18 years). Assessed data: Body weight and height, used to calculate the body mass index (BMIZ) and height-for-age (HAZ). Laboratory measurements: Lipid profile; glycemia and insulin for homeostasis model assessment (HOMA); adipokines; tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), C-reactive protein (CRP) and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1); total immunoglobulin E (IgE) and specific IgE against aeroallergens.

RESULTS

The median age was 9.6 years (3.0-16.6); most participants were male (n = 52, 56.5%), pre-pubertal (n = 54, 58.6%) and had atopic asthma (n = 85, 92.4%). Overweight/obesity (38%) showed an inverse correlation with age (adjusted odds ratio [OR] = 0.781; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.66-0.92) and a direct correlation with the leptin concentration (adjusted OR = 1.13; 95% CI 1.04-1.22). Insulin concentration was independently associated with moderated persistent asthma (adjusted OR = 1.31; 95% CI 1.09-1.52). HOMA showed a direct correlation with the leptin (β = 0.475; 95% CI 0.117-0.268) and total IgE (β = 0.197; 95% CI 0.002-0.096) levels and an inverse correlation with the TNF-α levels (β = -0.255; 95% CI;-0.366-0.055).

CONCLUSIONS

Asthma was associated with insulin resistance and a systemic inflammatory response possibly mediated by adipokines, with leptin levels standing out among the participants with excess weight.

[Clinical evolution and nutritional status in asthmatic children and adolescents enrolled in Primary Health Care]

Objective:

To evaluate the clinical evolution and the association between nutritional status and severity of asthma in children and adolescents enrolled in Primary Health Care.

Methods:

A retrospective cohort study of 219 asthmatic patients (3-17 years old) enrolled in Primary Care Services (PCSs) in Embu das Artes (SP), from 2007 to 2011. Secondary data: gender, age, diagnosis of asthma severity, other atopic diseases, family history of atopy, and body mass index. To evaluate the clinical outcome of asthma, data were collected on number of asthma exacerbations, number of emergency room consultations and doses of inhaled corticosteroids at follow-up visits in the 6th and 12th months. The statistical analysis included chi-square and Kappa agreement index, with 5% set as the significance level.

Results:

50.5% of patients started wheezing before the age of 2 years, 99.5% had allergic rhinitis and 65.2% had a positive family history of atopy. Regarding severity, intermittent asthma was more frequent (51.6%) and, in relation to nutritional status, 65.8% of patients had normal weight. There was no association between nutritional status and asthma severity (p =0.409). After 1 year of follow-up, 25.2% of patients showed reduction in exacerbations and emergency room consultations, and 16.2% reduced the amount of inhaled corticosteroids.

Conclusions:

The monitoring of asthmatic patients in Primary Care Services showed improvement in clinical outcome, with a decreased number of exacerbations, emergency room consultations and doses of inhaled corticosteroids. No association between nutritional status and asthma severity was observed in this study.

School children with low birth weight inserted in system of Embu's education: construction of sentences

PURPOSE

To characterize the construction of sentences in schoolchildren born with low weight.

METHODS

We selected 413 students from Embu das Artes (SP), Brazil. Application of Recreating Speech Acts of Test of Language Competence sub-test. We analyzed the number of words and the holistic score. Age group of 6-10 years old, female/male, with low birth weight (<2,500 g) in Study Group (SG; n=238), and birth weight above or equal to 2,500 g composing the Control Group (CG; n=175). Children with anomalies were excluded. The both groups' responses were considered as well as the association of the responses with variables birth weight, gender, age of child and maternal age and education, through Student's t-test, χ2test and linear regression.

RESULTS

The SG scored less on the total number of words and had worst performance in items that involved prepositions with a sense of temporality and place, with adverb functions. There was no difference between groups regarding the holistic score. It was found positive impact of the variables birth weight (p=0.002), age of child, age of mother and maternal education on standard test scores in both groups.

CONCLUSION

The SG had fewer words compared to CG. The higher the birth weight, the higher the score test pattern. It was evident the age-related changes in morpho-syntactic skills addressed in the study, and protection factors mother's schooling and age had a positive impact on language performance.

Adequacy of antenatal care and its relationship with low birth weight in Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil: a case-control study

BACKGROUND

Birth weight reflects gestational conditions and development during the fetal period. Low birth weight (LBW) may be associated with antenatal care (ANC) adequacy and quality. The purpose of this study was to analyze ANC adequacy and its relationship with LBW in the Unified Health System in Brazil.

METHODS

A case-control study was conducted in Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil, 2004 to 2008. Data were collected from secondary sources (the Live Birth Certificate), and primary sources (the official medical records of pregnant women). The study population consisted of two groups, each with 860 newborns. The case group comprised newborns weighing less than 2,500 grams, while the control group comprised live newborns weighing greater than or equal to 2,500 grams. Adequacy of ANC was evaluated according to three measurements: 1. Adequacy of the number of ANC visits adjusted to gestational age; 2. Modified Kessner Index; and 3. Adequacy of ANC laboratory studies and exams summary measure according to parameters defined by the Ministry of Health in the Program for Prenatal and Birth Care Humanization.

RESULTS

Analyses revealed that LBW was associated with the number of ANC visits adjusted to gestational age (OR = 1.78, 95% CI 1.32-2.34) and the ANC laboratory studies and exams summary measure (OR = 4.13, 95% CI 1.36-12.51). According to the modified Kessner Index, 64.4% of antenatal visits in the LBW group were adequate, with no differences between groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data corroborate the association between inadequate number of ANC visits, laboratory studies and exams, and increased risk of LBW newborns. No association was found between the modified Kessner Index as a measure of adequacy of ANC and LBW. This finding reveals the low indices of coverage for basic actions already well regulated in the Health System in Brazil. Despite the association found in the study, we cannot conclude that LBW would be prevented only by an adequate ANC, as LBW is associated with factors of complex and multifactorial etiology. The results could be used to plan monitoring measures and evaluate programs of health care assistance during pregnancy, at delivery and to newborns, focusing on reduced LBW rates.

Continuing education on child development for primary healthcare professionals: a prospective before-and-after study

CONTEXT AND OBJECTIVE

Children's developmental disorders are often identified late by healthcare professionals working in primary care. The aim of this study was to assess the impact of a continuing education program on child development, on the knowledge and practices of these professionals.

DESIGN AND SETTING

Prospective single-cohort study (before-and-after study), conducted in the city of Belém, Pará , Brazil.

METHODS

Two hundred and twenty-one professionals working in primary healthcare (82.2%) participated in a continuing education program on child development and were assessed before and after implementation of the program through tests on their knowledge of child development, consisting of 19 questions for physicians and 14 for nurses, and questionnaires on their professional practices.

RESULTS

One to three years after the program, the mean number of correct answers in the tests had increased from 11.5 to 14.3 among physicians in the Healthy Family Program (Programa Família Saudável, PFS); 13.0 to 14.3 among physicians in Municipal Health Units (Unidades Municipais de Saúde, UMS); 8.3 to 10.0 among PFS nurses; and 7.8 to 9.4 among UMS nurses. In interviews with mothers attended by these professionals before the program, only 21.7% reported that they were asked about their children's development, 24.7% reported that the professional asked about or observed their children's development and 11.1% received advice on how to stimulate them. After the program, these percentages increased to 34.5%, 54.2% and 30.3%, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Professionals who participated in the program showed improved performance regarding child development knowledge and practices.

[Functional skills of children with deficiencies in school inclusion: barriers to effective inclusion]

The scope of this article is to describe the disabilities of students in the process of inclusion by means of the PEDI - Pediatric Evaluation of Disability Inventory. A cross-sectional analysis was conducted. The population studied included 181 students (7-10 years old) from 31 public schools in São Paulo. Using a questionnaire applied to the caregiver, 197 activities were evaluated in the areas of self-care, mobility and social function. In accordance with the PEDI, differences (p < 0.05) in student performance were observed between grades in the scales of self-care (average of 77.8% in the 1st grade and 95.2% in the 4th grade) and mobility (average of 90% in the 1st grade and 99.8% in the 4th grade); social function had the lowest averages, except for those with physical disabilities, in which the most affected area was mobility (average of 62.7%). The PEDI enabled the identification of disabilities per group and individual disability, which may constitute an important tool for targeted intervention and follow-up at school.

Association of adipokines with cardiovascular risk factors in low birth weight children: a case-control study

Our aim was to investigate plasma levels of adiponectin, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) in low birth weight (LBW) children and to determine correlations among these adipokines and birth weight and cardiovascular disease risk factors. In a case-control study, the concentrations of adiponectin, MCP-1 and PAI-1 were measured in 180 schoolchildren (ages 6-11 years). MCP-1 and PAI-1 levels were significantly elevated in LBW children. Conversely, adiponectin concentration was significantly reduced in these children. Similar findings were observed after adjustment for current age, gender and abdominal circumference. Because the children with LBW had altered adipokine levels, as well as higher abdominal circumference, HOMA-IR and systolic blood pressure (SBP), we evaluated the correlation among these variables. These analyses showed that adiponectin levels were inversely correlated with systolic blood pressure (SBP) (r = -0.501; P < 0.001), HOMA-IR (r = -0.293; P = 0.023) and waist circumference (r = -0.317; P = 0.014). The proinflammatory markers were positively correlated with HOMA-IR (PAI-1: r = 0.358; P = 0.005) and waist circumference (PAI-1: r = 0.571; P < 0.001 and MCP-1: r = 0.267; P = 0.039).

CONCLUSION

Adipokines levels were correlated with cardiovascular risk factors in LBW children, and these compounds could be involved in the mechanism that links birth weight to the development of cardiovascular diseases in adulthood.

Concepção de profissionais de saúde sobre o papel das unidades básicas nas redes de atenção do SUS/Brasil

No processo de construção do SUS, como política universal e que busca assegurar a integralidade das ações, a assistência à demanda não agendada na atenção básica constitui desafio não superado. Objetivo: analisar a concepção de profissionais de saúde quanto ao papel das unidades básicas de saúde (UBS) na assistência a essa demanda. Método: estudo transversal considerou dados qualitativos obtidos por meio de questionários e entrevistas. Incluídos 106 médicos de 6 PS/AMA e 190 profissionais de 30 UBS. Estes opinaram sobre razões de a população procurar PS/AMA por ocorrências nosológicas próprias da atenção básica. Para análise, utilizou-se a técnica de análise do conteúdo, segundo categorias temáticas. Resultados: insuficiência de recursos e dificuldades no processo de trabalho das UBS (50,8%) foi a explicação mais frequentemente apontada por médicos de PS/AMA para justificar procura inadequada. Apenas 33,3% dos profissionais das UBS opinaram que essas ocorrências deveriam ser atendidas na atenção básica. Conclusões: A concepção limitada sobre o papel das UBS na atenção a essa demanda, sobretudo de profissionais da atenção básica, resulta, possivelmente, em práticas restritivas ao acesso da população.

[Overweight and obesity in prepubertal schoolchildren: the association with low birth weight and family antecedents of cardiovascular disease. Embu - metropolitan region of São Paulo, 2006]

The aim was to determine the prevalence of overweight and obesity in schoolchildren and the association with birth weight and family antecedents of cardiovascular disease. This cross-sectional study used a probabilistic sample of 929 schoolchildren aged 6 to 10 years. The variables were: body mass index (BMI), birth weight and family antecedents of cardiovascular disease. The statistical analysis consisted of the chi-square test (Pearson) and odds ratio, as association measurements. Of the schoolchildren (54.6% of which were female), 14.4% and 13.3% were overweight and obese, respectively. Low birth weight was reported among 9.4% and family antecedents of cardiovascular disease among 35.2%. Overweight or obesity (BMI e" P85) was associated with the presence of family antecedents of cardiovascular disease (OR = 1.66; 95% CI 1.23-2.23) and male sex (OR = 1.37; 95%CI 1.02-1.83); there was no association with birth weight. The results indicate the need for preventive actions for children with family antecedents of cardiovascular disease.

Risk factors for low birth weight in Botucatu city, SP state, Brazil: a study conducted in the public health system from 2004 to 2008

BACKGROUND

Low birth weight (LBW), defined as birth weight less than 2500 g, has a complex etiology and may be a result of premature interruption of pregnancy or intrauterine growth restriction. The objective of this study was to provide information on determinants of LBW and contribute to the understanding of the problem in Brazil.

METHODS

A case-control study was conducted in Botucatu city, SP state, Brazil. The study population consisted of 2 groups with 860 newborns in each group as follows: low weight newborns (LWNB) and a control group (weight ≥ 2500 g). Secondary data from 2004 to 2008 were collected using the Live Birth Certificate (LBC) and records from medical charts of pregnant women in Basic Health Units (BHU) and in the Public University Hospital (UH). Variables were as follows: maternal socio-demographic characteristics, pregnancy and birth conditions including quality of prenatal care according to 3 criteria. They were based on parameters established by the Ministry of Health (MH), one of them, the modified Kessner Index. The multivariable analysis by logistic regression was used to evaluate the association between variables and LBW.

RESULTS

According to the analysis, the factors associated with LBW were as follows: prematurity (OR = 56.98, 95% CI 29.52-109.95), twin pregnancy (OR = 20.00, 95% CI 6.25-100.00), maternal smoking (OR = 2.12, 95% CI 1.33-3.45), maternal malnourishment (OR = 2.30, 95% CI 1.08-5.00), maternal obesity (OR = 2.30, 95% IC 1.18-4.48), weight gain during pregnancy less than 5 kg (OR = 2.63, 95% CI 1.35-5.00) and weight gain during pregnancy more than 15 kg (OR = 2.26, 95% CI 1.16-4.41). Adequacy of prenatal care visits adjusted to gestational age was less frequent in the LBW group than in the control group (68.7% vs. 80.5%, x2 p < 0.001). According to the modified Kessner Index, 64.4% of prenatal visits in the LWNB group were adequate.

CONCLUSION

LWNB are a quite heterogeneous group of infants concerning their determinants and prevention actions against LBW and the follow-up of these infants have also been very complex. Therefore, improvement in the quality of care provided should be given priority through concrete actions for prevention of LBW.

Saúde da criança: fatores de risco aplicados em programas de atenção básica à saúde

OBJETIVO: comparar as frequências dos fatores de risco em crianças matriculadas em unidades básicas de saúde (UBS) em dois períodos (1988-1989 e 2005-2006) e analisar a associação desses fatores com desnutrição, internação e óbito. MÉTODOS:Estudo de abordagem quantitativa, tipo coorte retrospectiva com amostra probabilística (n=414) de crianças menores de um ano matriculadas em duas UBSs do Embu (SP), em 2005-2006. Variáveis independentes: alto risco e presença de fatores de risco. Desfechos: evolução ponderal desfavorável, déficit nutricional, internação, óbito. Estatística: Qui-Quadrado e Odds Ratio. RESULTADOS: em 2005-2006, verificou-se: maior frequência de intercorrências neonatais e mães adolescentes; menor freqüência de desnutrição ou óbito de irmão < 5 anos; evolução ponderal desfavorável (1,6%); deficit nutricional (2,9%); IMC > 2z (17,9%); internações (21,8%); nenhum óbito. Baixo peso ao nascer associou-se à internação (OR=4,04;IC95%:1,35-12,04). CONCLUSÕES: Baixo peso ao nascer permanece, como importante fator de risco e a proporção de sobrepeso/obesidade indica necessidade de redirecionamento das ações de saúde da criança.

Conhecimentos e práticas de profissionais sobre desenvolvimento da criança na atenção básica à saúde

OBJETIVO: Avaliar o conhecimento e as práticas sobre desenvolvimento infantil de médicos que atuam em Unidades Básicas de Saúde (UBS). MÉTODO: Estudo transversal, descritivo, realizado nas UBS de Embu (SP). Procedimentos do estudo: 1) avaliação do conhecimento por teste contendo 20 questões de múltipla escolha sobre desenvolvimento da criança aplicado a 31 médicos (universo) que prestam assistência pediátrica em UBS; 2) avaliação das práticas - entrevista semiestruturada aplicada para uma amostra de 154 mães/cuidadores que acompanhavam crianças com idade menor ou igual a 36 meses em consulta médica agendada em UBS do município. Para comparação de variáveis categóricas (avaliação/orientações sobre desenvolvimento em consultas de crianças de diferentes faixas etárias), utizou-se o qui-quadrado. RESULTADOS: A média de acertos dos médicos foi de 14,8 questões; sete questões apresentaram índices de erros superiores a 30% (desenvolvimento sensorial, aquisição de linguagem, fisiologia do sistema nervoso, diagnóstico clínico e laboratorial de infecções congênitas, erros inatos do metabolismo) e quatro questões apresentaram acertos acima de 85% (marcos do desenvolvimento motor, pessoal-social, fatores de risco e síndrome genética). Quanto às práticas, em 69 (45%) consultas o médico perguntou a opinião da mãe/cuidador sobre o desenvolvimento da criança, em 80 (52%) a mãe/cuidador referiu que o médico fez alguma pergunta e/ou avaliou o desenvolvimento e em 64 (42%) orientou sobre como estimular a criança. CONCLUSÕES: Identificaram-se falhas de conhecimento e nas práticas dos profissionais referentes ao desenvolvimento da criança, o que indica a necessidade de implementar educação permanente.

Insulin resistance among Brazilian schoolchildren: association with risk factors for cardiovascular diseases

AIM

Our purpose was to evaluate Insulin Resistance (IR) and its association with risk factors for cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) among 161 (6- to 10-year-old) schoolchildren.

METHODS

This two-stage cross-sectional study evaluated: BMI, blood pressure, personal history (birth weight) and family history of CVDs. Children with at least one of the following criteria participated in the second stage: obesity, personal or family history. Insulin resistance was determined using Homeostasis Model Assessment (HOMA).

RESULTS

The HOMA distribution in terciles showed mean values for the first, second and third tercile of 0.41, 0.79 and 2.11 respectively. The HOMA distribution in the third tercile demonstrated statistically significant associations with overweight/obesity (p = 0.007), hypertension (p = 0.008) and low HDL (p = 0.02). Analysis of mean birth weight in each tercile and between terciles did not present any positive correlation (p = 0.213).

CONCLUSION

Higher levels of HOMA (IR) were positively associated with risk factors for CVD among schoolchildren.

Metabolic syndrome among prepubertal Brazilian schoolchildren

This was a two-stage cross-sectional study that assessed metabolic syndrome and associated factors among prepubertal schoolchildren. In the first stage, nutritional status, blood pressure, personal (low birth weight) and family antecedents for cardiovascular disease (CVD) were collected. In the second stage, schoolchildren with at least one of these criteria participated: obesity, personal or family history. Metabolic syndrome (MS) was defined by ATP III and WHO definitions. Among 929 (6-10 year old) schoolchildren, 27.7% presented with overweight/obesity, 12.2% hypertension, and personal (9.4%) and family (35.3%) antecedents. 205 children finished the second stage. The frequencies of MS-ATP and MS-WHO were 9.3% and 1.9%. Among the obese, MS was present in 25.8% (ATP) and 5.2% (WHO). Children with normal weight presented: low HDL (23.6%), hyperglycaemia (3.6%), HOMA-IR (0.9%) and MS-ATP (0.9%). In conclusion, overweight/obesity was associated with metabolic syndrome in schoolchildren. It was found that children with normal weight with personal and/or family antecedents presented with HOMA-IR and MS-ATP.

Condições de vida e mortalidade infantil no município do Embu, São Paulo

OBJETIVO: Descrever a distribuição do coeficiente de mortalidade infantil e seus componentes no município do Embu, São Paulo, no período de 1995 a 1998, segundo os estratos de condições de vida. MÉTODOS: Estudo descritivo com análise por conglomerados,dos 135 setores censitários do município de Embu, agrupados em quatro estratos de condições de vida: estrato 1, com melhores condições de moradia, renda e escolaridade; estratos 2 e 3, intermediários; estrato 4, no qual todas as moradias eram aglomerados subnormais ou favelas. Foram calculados os coeficientes de mortalidade infantil, neonatal e pós-neonatal, a proporção entre óbitos neonatais e pós-neonatais, o risco atribuível populacional e mortalidade proporcional por causas, para os anos de 1995 a 1998, segundo os quatro estratos de condições de vida estabelecidos. RESULTADOS: O estrato 4 apresentou maiores coeficientes de mortalidade infantil e risco atribuível populacional em relação aos estratos intermediários, em todos os anos do estudo. Esse estrato apresentou, também, as menores proporções entre mortalidade neonatal e pós-neonatal. O risco atribuível populacional no estrato 4 foi maior que os demais estratos para as afecções perinatais (159,4), doenças respiratórias (271,4) e doenças infecciosas (415,6). Identificaram-se dados demográficos semelhantes em áreas próximas aos limites geograficamente constituídos pelo estudo e heterogeneidade de eventos num mesmo território. CONCLUSÕES: Identificou-se uma relação entre desigualdades sociais e mortalidade infantil, segundo os critérios de condições de vida estabelecidos para este estudo, entretanto, não houve distribuição homogênea nos quatro estratos populacionais, revelando dificuldades em utilizá-los como parâmetros para desigualdades sociais em grandes centros urbanos.

The expression of vulnerability through infant mortality in the municipality of Embu

CONTEXT AND OBJECTIVE

Infant mortality expresses a set of living, working and healthcare access conditions and opens up possibilities for adopting interventions to expand equity in healthcare. This study aimed to investigate vulnerability and the consequent differences in access to health services and occurrences of deaths among infants under one year of age in the municipality of Embu.

DESIGN AND SETTING

This was a descriptive study in the municipality of Embu.

METHODS

Primary data were collected through interviews with the families of children living in the municipality of Embu who died in the years 1996 and 1997 before reaching one year of age. Secondary data were obtained from death certificates. The variables collected related to living conditions, income, occupation, prenatal care, delivery and the healthcare provided for children. These data were compared with the results obtained from a study carried out in 1996.

RESULTS

Statistically significant differences were found with regard to income, working without a formal employment contract and access to private health plans among the families of the children who died. There were also differences in access to and quality of prenatal care, frequency of low birth weight and neonatal inter-ocurrences.

CONCLUSIONS

The employment/unemployment situation was decisive in determining the degree of family stability and vulnerability to the occurrence of infant deaths, in addition to the conditions of access to and quality of healthcare services.

Prophylaxis for iron deficiency anemia using ferrous sulfate among infants followed up at a primary healthcare unit in the municipality of Embu-SP (2003/2004)

CONTEXT AND OBJECTIVE

Iron deficiency anemia is an important public health problem in Brazil. In the municipality of Embu, a population study in 1996 found anemia prevalence of 68.5% among children aged one to two years. From these data, prescription of prophylactic ferrous sulfate was instituted in 1998 for children under two years old followed up within the children's healthcare program. After five years of intervention, the prevalence of anemia and associated factors were investigated among children aged 12 to 18 months to whom guidance for prophylactic ferrous sulfate use had been given.

DESIGN AND SETTING

Cross-sectional study covering October 2003 to June 2004 at a primary healthcare unit in Embu.

METHODS

A randomized sample of children aged 12 to 18 months to whom guidance for prophylactic ferrous sulfate use had been given was obtained. Hemoglobin was measured in capillary blood, using HemoCue apparatus. Hemoglobin < 11 g/100 dl was taken to indicate anemia.

RESULTS

The sample comprised 118 children and anemia was found in 41.5%. There was no statistically significant association between anemia presence and the variables of sex, birth weight, neonatal intercurrences, chronic diseases, breastfeeding or iron supplementation use. There was a statistically significant association (p = 0.03) between anemia presence and per capita income, such that the higher the income was, the lower the prevalence of anemia was.

CONCLUSION

The prophylaxis program against iron deficiency anemia did not achieve the expected results. New strategies must be considered in the light of the magnitude of the problem.

Risk factors associated with developmental abnormalities among high-risk children attended at a multidisciplinary clinic

CONTEXT AND OBJECTIVE

Knowledge of risk factors associated with child development disorders is essential for delivering high-quality childcare. The objective here was to evaluate the relationships between risk factors and occurrences of developmental abnormalities among children attended at a reference clinic for children at risk of developmental abnormalities.

DESIGN AND SETTING

Retrospective study at a multidisciplinary reference center, Embu, São Paulo.

METHODS

All cases followed up for more than three months between 1995 and 2003 were reviewed. The risk factors assessed were low birth weight, gestational age, length of stay in neonatal ward, perinatal asphyxia, mothers age < 18 years, congenital infections, malformations and low mothers education level. Developmental abnormalities were defined according to developmental tests and assessments by the clinics professionals. The statistical analysis consisted of the chi-squared test for comparing categorical variables and a logistic regression model for multivariate analysis.

RESULTS

211 children were followed up for more than three months. Developmental abnormalities occurred in 111 (52.6%). Univariate analysis showed significant relationships between developmental abnormality and low birth weight, perinatal asphyxia, length of stay > 5 days, prematurity and mothers age 18 years and older. Low birth weight, history of perinatal asphyxia and mothers age continued to be significant in multivariate analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

Special attention must be paid to the development of low birth weight infants and/or infants with histories of neonatal complications. Low birth weight is easily assessed and should be considered to be an important marker when defining guidelines for following up child development.

Acidentes não fatais em adolescentes escolares de Belém, Pará

OBJETIVO: Verificar a ocorrência de acidentes não fatais em adolescentes escolares do município de Belém, Pará. MÉTODOS: Estudo transversal. Amostra probabilística por conglomerados obtida em múltiplos estágios, que incluiu 2.828 adolescentes escolares, com idades entre 17 e 18 anos, matriculados na terceira série do ensino médio de escolas públicas e privadas de Belém, no ano 2000. Coleta de dados: questionário semi-estruturado de autopreenchimento. Análise estatística: comparação das variáveis categóricas por teste do qui-quadrado, calculado pelo programa Epitable, do Epi-Info 6.01. RESULTADOS: A média de idade dos escolares foi 17,7 anos, sendo 60% meninas, 82% estudavam na rede pública, 61% residiam com pai e mãe e 23% com apenas um dos genitores. A ocorrência de pelo menos um acidente foi relatada por 1.987 (70%) adolescentes. Os mais freqüentes foram: quedas (35%), contato com vidro, faca, espada e punhal (30%), contato com fonte de calor ou substâncias quentes (22%), acidentes de transporte (20%) e mordeduras por cão ou outros mamíferos (18%). A ocorrência foi maior no sexo masculino (78%) do que no feminino (65%) e entre estudantes da rede privada (77%) em comparação aos da rede pública (69%). Um terço dos acidentes levou os adolescentes à procura do serviço de saúde e, destes, 9% foram hospitalizados. CONCLUSÕES: Verificou-se elevada ocorrência de acidentes em adolescentes escolares, confirmando a vulnerabilidade desta faixa etária. Concluiu-se que a melhor condição social, aqui representada pela procedência da escola privada, não conferiu proteção a esses escolares.

Living conditions and receptive vocabulary of children aged two to five years

OBJECTIVE

To assess the receptive vocabulary of children aged between two years and six months and five years and eleven months who were attending childcare centers and kindergarten schools.

METHODS

An analytical cross-sectional study was carried out in the municipality of Embu, Southeastern Brazil. The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test and analysis of factors associated with children's performance were applied. The sample consisted of 201 children of both genders, aged between two and six years. Statistical analysis was performed using multivariate analysis and logistic regression model. The dependent variable analyzed was test performance and the independent variables were child's age, mother's level of education and family socio-demographic characteristics.

RESULTS

It was observed that 44.3% of the children had performances in the test that were below what would be expected for their age. The factors associated with the best performances in the test were child's age (OR=2.4; 95% CI: 1.6-3.5) and mother's education level (OR= 3.2; 95% CI: 1.3-7.4).

CONCLUSIONS

Mother's education level is important for child's language development. Settings such as childcare and kindergarten schools are protective factors for child development in families of low income and education.

Effectiveness of home-based peer counselling to promote breastfeeding in the northeast of Brazil: a randomized clinical trial

AIMS

To evaluate the effectiveness of home-based peer counselling to increase breastfeeding rates for unfavourably low birthweight babies.

METHODS

Randomized clinical trial carried out in maternity hospitals and households in Fortaleza, one of the regions in Brazil with very low income; 1003 mothers and their newborns were selected in eight maternity hospitals. Newborns needed were healthy and weighed less than 3000 g.

INTERVENTION

Breastfeeding counselling, conducted by lay counsellors from the community, during home visits carried out on days 5, 15, 30, 60, 90 and 120 after birth.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

Feeding methods in the fourth month of life.

RESULTS

The intervention increased exclusive breastfeeding (24.7% vs 19.4%; p=0.044), delayed the introduction of formula and increased the time infants substituted breastfeeding to bottle milk (bottle milk 33.4% in the control group and 20.1% in the intervention group; p=0.00002). When comparing the frequency of artificial breastfeeding versus all other forms of breastfeeding (exclusive+predominant+partial), the intervention increased breastfeeding rates in 39% (RR=0.61; CI 95%: 0.50-0.75); 15% of children were free from artificial feeding (absolute risk reduction). The number of families to be visited to avoid one child receiving artificial feeding (NNT) was 7 (CI 95%: 5-13).

CONCLUSIONS

Breastfeeding counselling, promoted by lay counsellors, can impact favourably on exclusive breastfeeding rates and contribute to delaying the utilization of milk formula and weaning. The intervention has great application potential because most cities in the northeast of Brazil count on community health workers that could do the counselling.

Effectiveness of home-based peer counselling to promote breastfeeding in the northeast of Brazil: a randomized clinical trial

AIMS

To evaluate the effectiveness of home-based peer counselling to increase breastfeeding rates for unfavourably low birthweight babies.

METHODS

Randomized clinical trial carried out in maternity hospitals and households in Fortaleza, one of the regions in Brazil with very low income; 1003 mothers and their newborns were selected in eight maternity hospitals. Newborns needed were healthy and weighed less than 3000 g.

INTERVENTION

Breastfeeding counselling, conducted by lay counsellors from the community, during home visits carried out on days 5, 15, 30, 60, 90 and 120 after birth.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

Feeding methods in the fourth month of life.

RESULTS

The intervention increased exclusive breastfeeding (24.7% vs 19.4%; p=0.044), delayed the introduction of formula and increased the time infants substituted breastfeeding to bottle milk (bottle milk 33.4% in the control group and 20.1% in the intervention group; p=0.00002). When comparing the frequency of artificial breastfeeding versus all other forms of breastfeeding (exclusive+predominant+partial), the intervention increased breastfeeding rates in 39% (RR=0.61; CI 95%: 0.50-0.75); 15% of children were free from artificial feeding (absolute risk reduction). The number of families to be visited to avoid one child receiving artificial feeding (NNT) was 7 (CI 95%: 5-13).

CONCLUSIONS

Breastfeeding counselling, promoted by lay counsellors, can impact favourably on exclusive breastfeeding rates and contribute to delaying the utilization of milk formula and weaning. The intervention has great application potential because most cities in the northeast of Brazil count on community health workers that could do the counselling.

Follow-up of children and adolescents with short stature: the importance of the growth rate

CONTEXT AND OBJECTIVE

Short stature is defined as a height of more than two standard deviations below the average for a given age and sex in a reference population. The objective was to describe follow-up conducted among short-stature children and adolescents.

DESIGN AND SETTING

Descriptive study, at the Growth outpatient clinic, Department of Pediatrics, Universidade Federal de São Paulo.

METHODS

The study included 152 patients aged 2 to 15 years who had height for age of less than P5, on the National Center for Health Statistics curve. The children underwent nutritional evaluation, and several variables relating to height and growth rate were calculated to establish etiological diagnosis. Bone age was evaluated by X-ray.

RESULTS

The majority (63.2%) were male. In 77.8%, the stature observed was within the family pattern. Among the 99 patients followed up for more than 6 months, 17.2% presented inadequate growth rates. The preponderant etiological diagnosis for short stature was familial/constitutional in 58.6% of the cases; 27 patients (34.2%) with adequate growth rate presented bone age alterations. Even with inadequate growth rates, 75% of such patients had a normal result from growth hormone stimulation testing. Close to 90% of patients with a diagnosis of short stature of familial/constitutional origin and intrauterine growth retardation presented adequate growth rate. The genetic etiology was significantly characteristic of patients with inadequate growth rate.

CONCLUSION

Growth rate assessment must form part of the investigation and follow-up of short-stature cases. However, its utilization and validity should form part of an overall view of each patient.

Prevalência de aleitamento materno e introdução precoce de suplementos alimentares em área urbana do Sudeste do Brasil, Embu, SP

OBJETIVOS: estimar a prevalência do aleitamento materno em Embu, utilizando indicadores da Organização Mundial de Saúde; investigar a associação dos eventos "não início do aleitamento materno" e "introdução precoce de suplementos alimentares" com fatores sociodemográficos e relacionados à assistência à saúde. MÉTODOS: estudo transversal analítico, domiciliar, com amostragem por conglomerados em dois estágios (sorteio sistemático) - parte do projeto "Morbidade e Utilização de Serviços de Saúde". População: 798 menores de três anos, residentes no Embu em 1996. RESULTADOS: aleitamento materno - 95,7% (IC95%: 93,2-98,2) dos menores de um ano; aleitamento exclusivo - 10,3% (IC95%: 2,9-17,6); predominante - 32,3% (IC95%: 23,5-41,2); duração mediana do aleitamento: seis meses. Fatores associados à introdução precoce de suplementos (uso de outros alimentos, exceto água ou chás, antes de 120 dias): residir em favela - OR = 3,70 (IC95%; 2,01-6,81); alta hospitalar do recém-nascido após cinco dias de vida - OR = 6,12 (IC95%: 1,64-22,80); mãe com 30 anos ou mais - OR = 1,70 (IC95%: 1,01-2,86). CONCLUSÕES: foram caracterizados grupos priori-tários para intervenção em aleitamento materno, apontando para a necessidade de novos estudos, além de ações dirigidas à população favelada e à melhora da assistência pré e perinatal.

Avaliação das práticas e conhecimentos de profissionais da atenção primária à saúde sobre vigilância do desenvolvimento infantil

O objetivo desta pesquisa foi avaliar os conhecimentos e práticas relacionados à vigilância do desenvolvimento da criança de 160 profissionais que atuam na atenção primária à saúde, no Município de Belém, Pará. Foram selecionados 40 médicos e 40 enfermeiros de Unidades Municipais de Saúde (UMS), e 40 médicos e 40 enfermeiros do Programa da Família Saudável (PFS). Na avaliação dos conhecimentos por meio da aplicação de teste objetivo, o percentual de acerto foi de 63,7% para médicos das UMSs, 57,3% para médicos do PFS, 62,1% para os enfermeiros do PFS e 54,3% para enfermeiros das UMSs. Na avaliação das práticas, apenas 21,8% das mães informaram que foram indagadas sobre o desenvolvimento dos seus filhos, 27,6% que o profissional perguntou ou observou o desenvolvimento da sua criança e 14,4% que receberam orientação sobre como estimulá-las. Concluímos que médicos e enfermeiros da atenção primária no Município de Belém apresentam deficiências nos conhecimentos sobre desenvolvimento infantil e que a vigilância do desenvolvimento não é realizada de forma satisfatória, sendo necessárias sensibilização e capacitação dos profissionais para esta prática.

[Prevalence of malnutrition among children in Embu, São Paulo State, Brazil, 1996-1997]

This paper focused on the nutritional profile of children in the municipality of Embu, São Paulo State, Brazil, in 1996-1997, to identify vulnerable population segments that require specific action by health services. The sample consisted of 320 children < or = 5 years of age distributed into four socioeconomic strata. The indices were expressed as z-scores: weight/age (W/A), height/age (H/A), and weight/height (W/H) to analyze the nutritional status, and the reference for normality was the NCHS curve. In all population strata and age groups, the height/age index was the most frequently affected, while the weight/height index had the fewest deficits. No statistically significant differences were observed in children's nutritional status between the four population strata or between the different age groups. Children with low birth weight showed the highest prevalence of deficits in all indices. In the municipality, the frequency of deficits were: H/A< 2z: 7.1%, W/H< 2z: 0.2%, and W/A< 2z: 2.9%. Height deficit can be used as an early warning, considering that loss observed over the course of years has future consequences.

[Prenatal and childbirth care equity in an area in Greater Metropolitan São Paulo, 1996]

A cross-sectional study was conducted to evaluate prenatal and childbirth care interviewing mothers of infants in the municipality of Embu (Greater Metropolitan São Paulo) in 1996, according to four socioeconomic strata. A door-to-door survey included a probabilistic sample consisting of 483 infants. In all strata more than 90% of the mothers had received prenatal care, but with late access in stratum 4 (residents of favelas, or slums). Breast examination during prenatal care, reported by only 60.8% of the mothers, was the worst single indicator of quality of prenatal care in the municipality. The outcome indicator - first prenatal consultation after the first trimester and total number of consultations less than six - was associated with maternal age (less than 20 years), low per capita family income (less than one minimum wage), and lack of private health plan. As for deliveries, 97.7% occurred in hospital, of which 32.5% by cesarean section, with the latter more frequent in private health care facilities (63.2%). No population segments were identified as being excluded from the health care system, but some indicators suggest greater deficiencies in socioeconomic stratum 4. These results have supported local health system managers in redefining health measures for the municipality.

Saúde infantil: condições de vida e utilização de serviços de saúde em área da Região Metropolitana de São Paulo, 1996

OBJETIVOS: identificar segmentos populacionais excluídos do sistema de saúde ou que demandassem atuação específica e reorientada dos serviços de saúde. MÉTODOS: estudo transversal, domiciliar, utilizou uma amostra probabilística constituída por 1.099 crianças menores de cinco anos, distribuídas em quatro estratos de condições de vida, residentes no município do Embu, São Paulo, em 1996. O processo de sorteio adotado foi o de conglomerados em dois estágios, tendo-se considerado duas populações independentes: crianças menores de um ano e crianças de um a quatro anos. Foram investigados indicadores da assistência pré-natal, perinatal e de atenção à saúde da criança. Para a análise estatística, foram calculadas as estimativas de proporções, erros padrão, intervalos de confiança (95%), utilizando-se o programa CSample: Epi-info 6.04. RESULTADOS: em todos os estratos, mais de 90% das mães realizaram pré-natal, com acesso tardio no estrato quatro (favelas). Cerca de 80% das crianças menores de um ano eram acompanhadas em serviços de saúde; as unidades básicas de saúde foram mais utilizadas para vacinação (97,4%) e acompanhamento de saúde (79,0%) e os outros serviços de saúde para consultas não marcadas, com maior procura por serviços privados/convênios no estrato um (melhores condições). Nas afecções agudas o serviço de saúde foi a opção de atendimento para quase 100% dos casos. CONCLUSÕES: não se verificou a existência de segmentos populacionais excluídos do sistema de saúde, porém alguns indicadores apontaram para deficiências mais acentuadas no estrato quatro.

[Factors associated to hospitalization of children under five years of age, São Paulo, Brazil]

OBJECTIVE

In developing countries acute respiratory infection (ARI) is the leading cause of hospitalization among children under five years of age. Their underprivileged life conditions and restricted access to health care services are important determining factors. The objective of the study was to assess hospital morbidity and to identify factors associated to hospitalization of children under five years of age.

METHODS

A data set derived from a cross-sectional study on health conditions of children under five years of age in the city of Embu, a county located in the metropolitan region of São Paulo, Brazil, was used. The inclusion criteria were one child per family (random selection). The exclusion criteria were missing data on any study variable. The sample size was 893 children. Data was collected using household interviews with mother or caretaker. Statistical analysis was performed using logistic regression models to identify factors associated with hospitalization.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS

Sixty-five (7.7%) children were hospitalized. Of them, 41.5% were admitted with a respiratory tract disease, mainly due to an ARI (27.7 %). Factors associated to hospitalization included: low birth weight; perinatal problems; chronic illness; death of a sibling under the age of five; grandmother as day caretaker; living in overcrowded places, and mother's higher educational level.

[Constipation in infants: influence of type of feeding and dietary fiber intake]

OBJECTIVE

To study the relationship between breast-feeding, dietary fiber intake and constipation in infants.

METHODS

The study population consisted of 275 infants consecutively enrolled in two Primary Care Clinic in the city of Embu, in the Great São Paulo. The feeding pattern were classified in predominantly breast-feeding, partially breast and cow's milk feeding and artificial feeding. Constipation was defined by the elimination of hard stool associated with one of the following: painful or difficult defecation, hard or round cracked stools and less than three defecations a week. False constipation was defined by the elimination of soft stools without pain or difficulty but with less than three defecations a week.

RESULTS

Constipation was found in 25.1% (69/275). False constipation was found only in the first semester of life in 5.1% of 159 infants. The prevalence of constipation was higher between 6 and 24 months (38.8%, 45/116) than in the first semester of life (15.1%, p=0.000). A model of logistic regression demonstrated that infants under artificial feeding were 4.53 times more liable to develop constipation than infants who were predominantly breastfed. The daily dietary fiber intake (g/day) was similar (p=0.57) among the constipated (median=9.0 g; 25th and 75th percentiles: 6.9-13.1 g) and non-constipated (median=8.8 g; 25th and 75th percentiles: 6.1-12.9 g).

CONCLUSIONS

Dietary fiber intake was similar in constipated and non-constipated infants. Breast-feeding serves as a protection factor against the development of constipation in the first semester of life.

Associated or combined vaccination of Brazilian infants with a conjugate Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) vaccine, a diphtheria-tetanus-whole-cell pertussis vaccine and IPV or OPV elicits protective levels of antibodies against Hib

This study investigated the immunogenicity and safety of including a Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccine (polyribosylribitol phosphate conjugated to tetanus toxoid, PRP-T) in three different vaccination schemes: (1) PRP-T reconstituted with a combined diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis-inactivated poliovirus vaccine (DTP-IPV//PRP-T); (2) PRP-T reconstituted with DTP and administered concomitantly with an oral poliovirus vaccine (DTP//PRP-T+OPV); and (3) PRP-T administered concomitantly with DTP at a different injection site and OPV (DTP+PRP-T+OPV). Vaccines were given at 2, 4, and 6 months of age. A total of 252 infants were enrolled, and randomly assigned to one of the three vaccination groups (84 infants in each group); 241 infants were followed until the end of the study. Antibody production against PRP, diphtheria, tetanus and pertussis antigens was satisfactory for each vaccination scheme used. A good response to Hib vaccine was elicited in each group, and 3 months after the third vaccine dose, at least 97% of children in each group had levels of PRP antibody considered to be seroprotective (>0.15 microg/ml), and over 90% of children in each group had levels over 1. 0 microg/ml. The solicited local and systemic adverse events following vaccination were mild in all groups and resolved within 4 days without medical intervention. With the exception of fever, which was more common after the second dose in children who received DTP-IPV//PRP-T, local and systemic reactions did not differ between the vaccination groups. Due to the practical advantages of combined vaccines, their use in routine immunization programs in developing countries is highly desirable. Our results show that Hib conjugate vaccine can be included in routine immunization programs that include either OPV or IPV with satisfactory immunogenicity and safety profiles. This flexible approach should facilitate the inclusion of the Hib conjugate vaccine in routine immunization programs on a world-wide scale.

Day care centres as an institution for health promotion among needy children: an analytical study in São Paulo, Brazil

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the role of day care centres in the nutritional state of children belonging to a low-income population, comparing the nutritional state of the children in the day care centres with children in the same population who were given other types of day care.

DESIGN

Analytical cross-sectional study.

SETTING

Public day care centres/primary health care.

PARTICIPANTS

Children aged 0-6 yr attending in 4 public day care centres (n=446) and sample of population obtained during vaccination campaign (n=1626).

MEASUREMENT

Nutritional evaluation was conducted through weight and height measurements, using as a standard the NCHS (USA) table and Gomez and Waterlow methodology. The type of daily care received by the children was assessed through a questionnaire answered by the responsible persons during the vaccination campaign.

RESULTS

The nutritional status of children attended in the day care centers was better than children of the same community receiving other types of daily care (OR=0.48; CI 95%=0.36-0.65;P>0.0001). The improvement was related to more than 1 year of enrollment in the day care (OR=0.74; CI 95%=0.57-0.96;P=0.02).

[Social inequalities and health services use: evidences from a stratified household survey]

OBJECTIVE

The study aims to identify children who are not benefited by local health programs, looking for to characterize the excluded segment of the population in order to broaden the access to and use of the main actions provided by local health programs.

METHODS

A sample of 465 children aged less than 1 year was studied, living in the year of 1996 in Embu, a city of the metropolitan area of S. Paulo, Brazil. Our hypothesis was that there is a higher availability of private health care resources among families who haven't been using the local health program. The statistical analysis consisted of stratified association analysis to study the heterogeneity between and intra four strata of families defined by different socioeconomic conditions.

RESULTS

Although only 85.4% of the study children were enrolled in local health services, 91.2% of them were being benefited by main health care actions. The analysis of differences intra strata revealed that our hypothesis was only corroborated in one stratum. It is in the stratum 3, which concentrates the peripheral population, where we could find children who have not been using the local health program in Embu city.

CONCLUSIONS

In the same social segment it was detected some inner heterogeneity among families related to the availability of private resources for their children health care.

Assessing morbidity in the paediatric community

INTRODUCTION

Morbidity information is easily available from medical records but its scope is limited to the population attended by the health services. Information on the prevalence of diseases requires community surveys, which are not always feasible. These two sources of information represent two alternative assessments of disease occurrence, namely demand morbidity and perceived morbidity. The present study was conceived so as to elicit a potential relationship between them so that the former could be used in the absence of the latter.

METHODS

A community of 13,365 families on the outskirts of S. Paulo, Brazil, was studied during the period from 15/Nov/1994 to 15/Jan/1995. Data regarding children less than 5 years old were collected from a household survey and from the 2 basic health units in the area. Prevalence of diseases was ascertained from perceived morbidity and compared to estimates computed from demand morbidity.

RESULTS

Data analysis distinguished 2 age groups, infants less than 1 year old and children 1 to less than 5. The most important groups of diseases were respiratory diseases, diarrhoea, skin problems and infectious & parasitical diseases. Basic health units presented a better coverage for infants. Though disease frequencies were not different within or outside these units, a better coverage was found for diarrhoea and infectious & parasitical diseases in the infant group, and for diarrhoea in the older age group. Equivalence between the two types of morbidity was found to be limited to the infant group and concerned only the best covered diseases. The odds of a disease being seen at the health service should be of at least 4:10 to ensure this equivalence.

CONCLUSION

It was concluded that, provided that health service coverage is good, demand morbidity can be taken as a reliable estimate of community morbidity.

[Morbidity and malnutrition risk factors in children followed up by a child health care program]

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to identify risk factors associated with malnutrition and morbidity in the population of children accompanied by the Child Health Care Program in Embu, São Paulo (Brazil), with the aim of giving a better direction to health activities.

METHODS

The case-study was constituted by a cross-section of 1,024 children, corresponding to 25.0% (probabilistic sistematic sample) of the total of children under 12 months registered in six primary health care centers in the Municipality, during the period from July 1988 to July 1989. The risk factors were analyzed according to the presence or absence of hospitalization and weight evolution - favorable or unfavorable - until two years of age. For the statistical analysis the multivaried approach was used, through the tecnique of logistic regression.

RESULTS

Of a total of 1,024 children, 428 (39.1%) were classified as high risk, 658 (60.1%) as low risk and 8 (0.8%) presented pathologies at their first appointment, being excluded from the analysis. Prematurity (adjusted RR = 3.35), serious illness in the newborn (adjusted RR = 4.12) and the death of a younger brother or sister of less than five years (adjusted RR = 2.70) constituted risk factors for hospitalization in the first two years of life. Weight at birth between 2,500 and 2,750 g (adjusted RR = 2.46), brother or sister with malnutrition (adjusted RR = 4.17) and maternal age of 18 years old or less (adjusted RR = 1.87) constituted risk factors for unfavourable weight evolution.

CONCLUSIONS

These results, as well as the process of carrying out this study, supported the reformulation of the Child Health Care Program in Embu, permitting differentiated action for the highest risk group, thus garanteeing the essential for all.

[Evaluation of the Malnourished Children's Recuperation Program in the town of Embu, located in the Metropolitan Area of São Paulo]

The objective of this study is to assess the anthropometric evolution of children who had been assisted by the Malnourished Children's Recuperation Program in the town of Embu, as well as to analyze some variables that interfered in this evaluation. The study included 233 children aged under five, enrolled in the program from January 1984 to December 1985. 201 (86,3%) were undernourished grade II and 32 (13,7%) grade III, according to Gomez. The percentage increase of Weight in relation to Age (W/A) and Height in relation to Age (H/A) - outcome variables, in the first and last examinations in the program - were analyzed, using the multiple linear regression. Younger children and in worse nutritional conditions showed higher W/A and H/A increases. Low birth weight, more frequent examinations, and longer stay in the program were associated to lower W/A increases. The presence of chronical pathologies jeopardized the H/A rate increases. This result strengthens the importance of developing programs for the assistance of undernourished children, due to higher risk of morbi-mortality in this group, mainly in younger children and with worse nutritional conditions.