Association of D-dimer Levels with Clinical Event Rates and the Efficacy of Betrixaban versus Enoxaparin in the APEX Trial

Background  Elevated D-dimer concentrations are associated with an increased risk of venous thromboembolism (VTE). However, they may also provide prognostic value. The present analysis sought to study the association of D-dimer levels with VTE event rates and the efficacy of betrixaban versus enoxaparin in the APEX trial. Methods  Hospitalized acutely medically ill subjects ( n  = 7,513) were randomized in a double-dummy double-blind fashion to either extended-duration oral betrixaban (80 mg once daily for 35-42 days) or standard dose subcutaneous enoxaparin (40 mg once daily for 10 ± 4 days) for venous thromboprophylaxis. D-dimer was assessed using a central core laboratory measurement. Results  For every 0.25 µg/mL increase in D-dimer concentration, there was a 2% increase in the relative risk of experiencing the primary efficacy endpoint (asymptomatic deep vein thrombosis [DVT], symptomatic DVT, nonfatal pulmonary embolism, or VTE-related death) in both the betrixaban ( p  < 0.001) and enoxaparin ( p  < 0.001) treatment arms. Among D-dimer-positive (≥ 2 × upper limit of normal; corresponding to ≥ 1.00 µg/mL) subjects, extended-duration betrixaban reduced the risk of experiencing the primary efficacy outcome (5.4% [ n  = 124] vs. 7.6% [ n  = 170]; odds ratio = 0.69; 95% confidence interval: 0.55-0.88; absolute risk reduction = 2.2%, number needed to treat = 46, p  = 0.003). There was no interaction between D-dimer and the treatment effect ( p int  = 0.53). Conclusion  Extended-duration betrixaban was superior to standard-duration enoxaparin, irrespective of D-dimer level at baseline. To prevent one VTE event, 46 D-dimer-positive patients would need to be treated with betrixaban.

Effect of extended-duration thromboprophylaxis on venous thromboembolism and major bleeding among acutely ill hospitalized medical patients: a bivariate analysis

Essentials Anticoagulants prevent venous thromboembolism but may be associated with greater bleeding risks. Bivariate analysis assumes a non-linear relationship between efficacy and safety outcomes. Extended full-dose betrixaban is favorable over standard enoxaparin in bivariate endpoint. Clinicians must weigh efficacy and safety outcomes in decision-making on thromboprophylaxis.

SUMMARY

Background Among acutely ill hospitalized medical patients, extended-duration thromboprophylaxis reduces the risk of venous thromboembolism (VTE), but some pharmacologic strategies have been associated with greater risks of major bleeding, thereby offsetting the net clinical benefit (NCB). Methods To assess the risk-benefit profile of anticoagulation regimens, a previously described bivariate method that does not assume a linear risk-benefit tradeoff and can accommodate different margins for efficacy and safety was performed to simultaneously assess efficacy (symptomatic VTE) and safety (major bleeding) on the basis of data from four randomized controlled trials of extended-duration (30-46 days) versus standard-duration (6-14 days) thromboprophylaxis among 28 227 patients (EXCLAIM, ADOPT, MAGELLAN and APEX trials). Results Extended thromboprophylaxis with full-dose betrixaban (80 mg once daily) was superior in efficacy and non-inferior in safety to standard-duration enoxaparin, and showed a significantly favorable NCB, with a risk difference of - 0.51% (- 0.89% to - 0.10%) in the bivariate outcome. Extended enoxaparin was superior in efficacy and inferior in safety (bivariate outcome: 0.03% [- 0.37% to 0.43%]), whereas apixaban and rivaroxaban were non-inferior in efficacy and inferior in safety (- 0.20% [- 0.49% to 0.17%] and 0.23% [- 0.16% to 0.69%], respectively). Reduced-dose betrixaban did not show a significant difference in either efficacy or safety (0.41% [- 0.85% to 1.94%]). Conclusions In a bivariate analysis that assumes non-linear risk-benefit tradeoffs, extended prophylaxis with full-dose betrixaban was superior to standard-duration enoxaparin, whereas other regimens failed to simultaneously achieve both superiority and non-inferiority with respect to symptomatic VTE and major bleeding in the management of acutely ill hospitalized medical patients.

Treatment of Proximal Deep-Vein Thrombosis With the Oral Direct Factor Xa Inhibitor Rivaroxaban (BAY 59-7939)

Background— An effective and safe oral anticoagulant that needs no monitoring for dose adjustment is urgently needed for the treatment of diseases that require long-term anticoagulation. Rivaroxaban (BAY 59-7939) is an oral direct factor Xa inhibitor currently under clinical development.

Methods and Results— This randomized, parallel-group phase II trial in patients with proximal deep-vein thrombosis explored the efficacy and safety of rivaroxaban 10, 20, or 30 mg BID or 40 mg once daily compared with enoxaparin 1 mg/kg BID followed by vitamin K antagonist. Each treatment was administered for 12 weeks. The primary efficacy end point was an improvement in thrombotic burden at day 21 (assessed by quantitative compression ultrasonography; ≥4-point improvement in thrombus score) without recurrent symptomatic venous thromboembolism or venous thromboembolism-related death. The primary safety end point was major bleeding during 12 weeks of treatment. Outcomes were adjudicated centrally without knowledge of treatment allocation. The primary efficacy end point was achieved in 53 (53.0%) of 100, 58 (59.2%) of 98, 62 (56.9%) of 109, and 49 (43.8%) of 112 patients receiving rivaroxaban 10, 20, or 30 mg BID or 40 mg once daily, respectively, compared with 50 (45.9%) of 109 patients treated with enoxaparin/vitamin K antagonist. There was no significant trend in the dose-response relationship between rivaroxaban BID and the primary efficacy end point ( P =0.67). Major bleeding was observed in 1.7%, 1.7%, 3.3%, and 1.7% of patients receiving rivaroxaban 10, 20, or 30 mg BID or 40 mg once daily, respectively. There were no major bleeding events with enoxaparin/vitamin K antagonist.

Conclusions— Results of this proof-of-concept and dose-finding study support phase III evaluation of the orally active direct factor Xa inhibitor rivaroxaban, because efficacy and safety were apparent in the treatment of proximal deep-vein thrombosis across a 3-fold range of fixed daily dosing.

Antithrombotic therapy for venous thromboembolic disease: the Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy

This chapter about antithrombotic therapy for venous thromboembolic disease is part of the seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy: Evidence Based Guidelines. Grade 1 recommendations are strong and indicate that the benefits do, or do not, outweigh risks, burden, and costs. Grade 2 suggests that individual patients' values may lead to different choices (for a full understanding of the grading see Guyatt et al, CHEST 2004; 126:179S-187S). Among the key recommendations in this chapter are the following: for patients with objectively confirmed deep vein thrombosis (DVT), we recommend short-term treatment with subcutaneous (SC) low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) or, alternatively, IV unfractionated heparin (UFH) [both Grade 1A]. For patients with a high clinical suspicion of DVT, we recommend treatment with anticoagulants while awaiting the outcome of diagnostic tests (Grade 1C+). In acute DVT, we recommend initial treatment with LMWH or UFH for at least 5 days (Grade 1C), initiation of vitamin K antagonist (VKA) together with LMWH or UFH on the first treatment day, and discontinuation of heparin when the international normalized ratio (INR) is stable and > 2.0 (Grade 1A). For the duration and intensity of treatment for acute DVT of the leg, the recommendations include the following: for patients with a first episode of DVT secondary to a transient (reversible) risk factor, we recommend long-term treatment with a VKA for 3 months over treatment for shorter periods (Grade 1A). For patients with a first episode of idiopathic DVT, we recommend treatment with a VKA for at least 6 to 12 months (Grade 1A). We recommend that the dose of VKA be adjusted to maintain a target INR of 2.5 (INR range, 2.0 to 3.0) for all treatment durations (Grade 1A). We recommend against high-intensity VKA therapy (INR range, 3.1 to 4.0) [Grade 1A] and against low-intensity therapy (INR range, 1.5 to 1.9) compared to INR range of 2.0 to 3.0 (Grade 1A). For the prevention of the postthrombotic syndrome, we recommend the use of an elastic compression stocking (Grade 1A). For patients with objectively confirmed nonmassive PE, we recommend acute treatment with SC LMWH or, alternatively, IV UFH (both Grade 1A). For most patients with pulmonary embolism (PE), we recommend clinicians not use systemic thrombolytic therapy (Grade 1A). For the duration and intensity of treatment for PE, the recommendations are similar to those for DVT.

Extended out-of-hospital low-molecular-weight heparin prophylaxis against deep venous thrombosis in patients after elective hip arthroplasty: a systematic review

PURPOSE

Evidence-based medicine guidelines based on venographic end points recommend in-hospital prophylaxis with low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) in patients having elective hip surgery. Emerging data suggest that out-of-hospital use may offer additional protection; however, uncertainty remains about the risk-benefit ratio. To provide clinicians with a practical pathway for translating clinical research into practice, we systematically reviewed trials comparing extended out-of-hospital LMWH prophylaxis versus placebo.

DATA SOURCES

Studies were identified by 1) searching PubMed, MEDLINE, and the Cochrane Library Database for reports published from January 1976 to May 2001; 2) reviewing references from retrieved articles; 3) scanning abstracts from conference proceedings; and 4) contacting pharmaceutical companies and investigators of the original reports.

STUDY SELECTION

Randomized, controlled trials comparing extended out-of-hospital prophylaxis with LMWH versus placebo in patients having elective hip arthroplasty.

DATA EXTRACTION

Two reviewers extracted data independently. Reviewers evaluated study quality by using a validated four-item instrument.

DATA SYNTHESIS

Six of seven original articles met the defined inclusion criteria. The included studies were double-blind trials that used proper randomization procedures. Compared with placebo, extended out-of-hospital prophylaxis decreased the frequency of all episodes of deep venous thrombosis (placebo rate, 150 of 666 patients [22.5%]; relative risk, 0.41 [95% CI, 0.32 to 0.54; P < 0.001]), proximal venous thrombosis (placebo rate, 76 of 678 patients [11.2%]; relative risk, 0.31 [CI, 0.20 to 0.47; P < 0.001]), and symptomatic venous thromboembolism (placebo rate, 36 of 862 patients [4.2%]; relative risk, 0.36 [CI, 0.20 to 0.67; P = 0.001]). Major bleeding was rare, occurring in only one patient in the placebo group.

CONCLUSIONS

Extended LMWH prophylaxis showed consistent effectiveness and safety in the trials (regardless of study variations in clinical practice and length of hospital stay) for venographic deep venous thrombosis and symptomatic venous thromboembolism. The aggregate findings support the need for extended out-of-hospital prophylaxis in patients undergoing hip arthroplasty surgery.

Population pharmacodynamics in patients receiving tinzaparin for the prevention and treatment of deep vein thrombosis

OBJECTIVES

We conducted population anticoagulant pharmacodynamic analysis for patients administered the low-molecular weight heparin tinzaparin.

METHODS

Data from 425 patients (2,631 observations) who participated in 2 Phase III clinical studies were utilized in an analysis based on a pharmacodynamic structural model of anti-Xa activity using non-linear mixed effects modeling techniques. Anti-Xa activity from patients participating in a multicenter, randomized, double-blind clinical trial comparing intravenous once daily subcutaneous tinzaparin (175 IU/kg) with heparin for the treatment of deep vein thrombosis (DVT) was first examined using a 2-compartment model with first-order absorption and endogenous anti-Xa activity. Covariates included renal function, body weight, age, gender, race, obesity, concomitant administration of warfarin, and diabetes.

RESULTS

The population estimates and 90% confidence intervals (CI) for oral clearance (CL) and apparent volume of distribution of the plasma compartment (Vc) were 0.0176 l/h/kg (CI = 0.012-0.023) and 0.098 l/kg (CI = 0.088 - 0.109), respectively. The elimination half-life was 3.9 h (CI = 2.5-5.2). These estimates are similar to findings in healthy volunteers. The inter-patient variability in clearance was related to plasma creatinine and percent above ideal body weight. Clearance decreased by 22% for patients with severe renal function impairment (creatinine clearance < 30 ml/min), and by about 25% in obese patients (BMI > 30 kg/m2).

CONCLUSIONS

Changes of these magnitudes were not clinically important in pooled clinical trial safety and efficacy analyses. Body weight was not a significant covariate in the model supporting the observations in earlier well-defined trials, where tinzaparin was dosed on a weight basis (lU/kg). Clearance was not influenced by age, race or gender. The same model was applied to data obtained from a prospective, randomized, double-blind clinical trial comparing tinzaparin (4,500 IU) to enoxaparin (40 mg) once daily in patients undergoing total hip replacement. Model parameters were similar to those previously obtained supporting the extension of these results across dose and indication. Population analysis in patients with disease and heterogeneity indicated similar pharmacodynamics as in volunteers, supporting weight-based dosing and identified the dependence of clearance on obesity and severe renal function, although the magnitude of these effects are probably not clinically significant.

Timing of initial administration of low-molecular-weight heparin prophylaxis against deep vein thrombosis in patients following elective hip arthroplasty: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Perioperative and postoperative venous thrombosis are common in patients undergoing elective hip surgery. Prophylactic regimens include subcutaneous low-molecular-weight heparin 12 hours or more before or after surgery and oral anticoagulants. Recent clinical trials suggest that low-molecular-weight heparin initiated in closer proximity to surgery is more effective than the present clinical practice. We performed a systematic review of the literature to assess the efficacy and safety of low-molecular-weight heparin administered at different times in relation to surgery vs oral anticoagulant prophylaxis.

METHODS

Reviewers (A.F.M. and S.M.M.) identified studies by searching MEDLINE, reviewing references from retrieved articles, scanning abstracts from conference proceedings, and contacting investigators and pharmaceutical companies. Randomized trials comparing low-molecular-weight heparin administered at different times relative to surgery with oral anticoagulants in patients undergoing elective hip arthroplasty, evaluated using contrast phlebography, were selected. Two reviewers (A.F.M. and S.M.M.) extracted data independently.

RESULTS

The literature review identified 4 randomized trials meeting predefined inclusion criteria. The results indicate that low-molecular-weight heparin initiated in close proximity to surgery resulted in absolute risk reductions of 11% to 13% for deep vein thrombosis, corresponding to relative risk reductions of 43% to 55% compared with oral anticoagulants. Low-molecular-weight heparin initiated 12 hours before surgery or 12 to 24 hours postoperatively was not more effective than oral anticoagulants. Low-molecular-weight heparin initiated postoperatively in close proximity to surgery at half the usual dose was not associated with a clinically or statistically significant increase in major bleeding rates (P =.16).

CONCLUSIONS

The timing of initiating low-molecular-weight heparin significantly influences antithrombotic effectiveness. The practice of delayed initiation of low-molecular-weight heparin prophylaxis results in suboptimal antithrombotic effectiveness without a substantive safety advantage.

Orally active heparin and low-molecular-weight heparin

The heparins, (unfractionated heparin (UFH) and low-molecular-weight heparins (LMWH)) given by subcutaneous or intravenous injection have been used extensively in the prevention and treatment of both venous and arterial thromboembolic disorders. The increasing use of the heparins, LMWHs in particular, in the out of hospital setting has stimulated interest in the development of orally absorbable antithrombotic agents that require little or no monitoring, and this includes the heparins. UFH or LMWH delivered orally has been shown to have an antithrombotic effect in animal thrombosis models although there is little change in plasma coagulation tests. The addition of a simple organic chemical N -(8-(2-hydroxybenzoyl)amino)caprylate (SNAC) to UFH markedly enhances its absorption. A phase II study in patients undergoing total hip replacement indicated that SNAC heparin in two different doses was as effective and safe as UFH given subcutaneously. A phase III clinical trial comparing two doses of SNAC heparin given orally with LMWH by subcutaneous injection for the prevention of venous thromboembolism in patients undergoing total hip replacement is currently underway.

Dalteparin sodium

Dalteparin sodium (Fragmin, Pharmacia Corporation) is a low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) with a mean molecular weight of approximately 5000 Da. As with the other LMWHs, dalteparin sodium has certain advantages over unfractionated heparin (UFH), most important of which are improved bio-availability by sc. injection, a prolonged antithrombotic activity which is highly correlated with body weight permitting the o.d. administration of the drug. Dalteparin sodium has been subjected to a large number of well-designed randomised clinical trials for the prevention and treatment of thrombotic disorders. Based on data from the randomised clinical trials, dalteparin sodium has been approved internationally for a wide spectrum of clinical indications (e.g., prevention of thromboembolic events after surgery). Dalteparin sodium has also been studied in randomised controlled trials in the maintenance of graft patentcy following peripheral vascular surgery, in place of warfarin for the long-term treatment of patients presenting with deep vein thrombosis (DVT), in the prevention of upper extremity thrombosis in patients with indwelling portacath devices and in pregnant patients with a history of previous venous thromboembolism with or without thrombophilia. Dalteparin sodium has been compared with heparin for the prevention of thrombotic complications during haemodyalisis and haemofiltration. These studies have shown promising results but further work is required before dalteparin sodium can be recommended for these indications.

Cost-effectiveness of currently accepted strategies for pulmonary embolism diagnosis

Improvements in the methods of clinical trials combined with the use of objective tests to detect venous thrombosis have enhanced the clinician's ability to diagnose pulmonary embolism and venous thrombosis (venous thromboembolism). The authors updated a previous cost-effectiveness analysis of the commonly recommended strategies for pulmonary embolism diagnosis and management to reflect current clinical practice. Two criteria of effectiveness were used: correct identification of venous thromboembolism and correct identification of venous thromboembolism and correct identification of patients for whom treatment was unnecessary. The cost of each diagnostic alternative was defined as the direct cost of administering the diagnostic tests plus the treatment costs associated with a positive test result. A strategy based on the combined use ofventilation-perfusion lung scanning, serial ultrasonography, cardiorespiratory evaluation, and pulmonary angiography was the most cost-effective. This strategy also necessitated pulmonary angiography in the fewest number of patients. The safety of this strategy relates to two important biologic concepts: 1) local extension of submassive pulmonary embolism in the lung is not an important cause of morbidity or mortality in patients with adequate cardiorespiratory reserve, and 2) in most patients, proximal vein thrombi of the lower extremities are the source of recurrent pulmonary embolism.

New insights into extended prophylaxis after orthopaedic surgery - the North American Fragmin Trial experience

It is well-known that peri-operative and post-operative venous thrombosis are common. Trials in Europe have shown that extended out-of-hospital prophylaxis with a low-molecular-weight heparin reduces the rate of deep vein thrombosis in patients undergoing elective hip surgery. North American investigators of limited-outcome descriptive studies, however, have suggested that out-of-hospital prophylaxis is not necessary. To resolve this uncertainty, NAFT (North American Fragmin Trial) was conducted, the results of which are summarized in this paper. The findings of NAFT support the favourable findings of the European studies on extended prophylaxis. Furthermore, European data have shown extended out-of-hospital prophylaxis to be cost-effective. On the basis of the aggregate data, it is felt that the A2 recommendation made by the Fifth American College of Chest Physicians consensus conference for extended prophylaxis should be changed to an A1 recommendation.

Mining the chemical quarry with joint chemical probes: an application of latent semantic structure indexing (LaSSI) and TOPOSIM (Dice) to chemical database mining

In this study we use a novel similarity search technique called latent semantic structure indexing (LaSSI) with joint chemical probes as queries to mine the MDL drug data report database. LaSSI is based on latent semantic indexing developed for searching textual databases. We use atom pair and topological torsion descriptors in our calculations. The results obtained with LaSSI are compared with another in-house similarity search technique TOPOSIM. The results from the similarity searches using joint chemical probes are significantly better than searches using single chemical probes for both LaSSI and TOPOSIM. The selected molecules are closely related in activity to their queries and are ranked among the top 300 scoring molecules of the 82 860 entries in the database. Our implementation of LaSSI is very fast and efficient in finding active compounds. The results also show that LaSSI consistently retrieves more diverse chemical structures representative of the joint chemical probes in comparison to TOPOSIM. The use of multimolecule topological probes to identify compounds complements the use of searching databases with 3D pharmacophore hypotheses.

Latent semantic structure indexing (LaSSI) for defining chemical similarity

A novel method for computing chemical similarity from chemical substructure descriptors is described. This new method, called LaSSI, uses the singular value decomposition (SVD) of a chemical descriptor-molecule matrix to create a low-dimensional representation of the original descriptor space. Ranking molecules by similarity to a probe molecule in the reduced-dimensional space has several advantages over analogous ranking in the original descriptor space: matching latent structures is more robust than matching discrete descriptors, choosing the number of singular values provides a rational way to vary the "fuzziness" of the search, and the reduction in the dimensionality of the chemical space increases searching speed. LaSSI also allows the calculation of the similarity between two descriptors and between a descriptor and a molecule.

Chemical similarity searches using latent semantic structural indexing (LaSSI) and comparison to TOPOSIM

Similarity searches based on chemical descriptors have proven extremely useful in aiding large-scale drug screening. Here we present results of similarity searching using Latent Semantic Structure Indexing (LaSSI). LaSSI uses a singular value decomposition on chemical descriptors to project molecules into a k-dimensional descriptor space, where k is the number of retained singular values. The effect of the projection is that certain descriptors are emphasized over others and some descriptors may count as partially equivalent to others. We compare LaSSI searches to searches done with TOPOSIM, our standard in-house method, which uses the Dice similarity definition. Standard descriptor-based methods such as TOPOSIM count all descriptors equally and treat all descriptors as independent. For this work we use atom pairs and topological torsions as examples of chemical descriptors. Using objective criteria to determine how effective one similarity method is versus another in selecting active compounds from a large database, we find for a series of 16 drug-like probes that LaSSI is as good as or better than TOPOSIM in selecting active compounds from the MDDR database, if the user is allowed to treat k as an adjustable parameter. Typically, LaSSI selects very different sets of actives than does TOPOSIM, so it can find classes of actives that TOPOSIM would miss.

Low-molecular-weight heparin in the treatment of venous thromboembolism

The low-molecular-weight heparins (LMWHs) have been evaluated in the prevention and treatment of deep-vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. LMWHs have been found to be safe and effective in this clinical setting and have advantages over unfractionated heparin. These advantages include less serious and less frequent therapeutic complications. The favorable pharmacokinetic profile of LMWHs compared with heparin has allowed for safe, effective, and convenient treatment of patients with venous thromboembolism. Use of LMWHs ultimately results in considerable cost savings for the health care system.

Development of a National Occupational Exposure Survey and Database associated with NIOSH hazard surveillance initiatives

NIOSH pioneered hazard surveillance in the workplace by designing and conducting the 1972 to 1974 National Occupational Hazard Survey (NOHS), the 1981 to 1983 National Occupational Exposure Survey (NOES), and the 1984 to 1989 National Occupational Health Survey of Mining (NOHSM). The databases developed from these three on-site surveys represent unique resources for associating potential chemical, physical and biological agents with industries and occupational groups. The data have been a primary source of information for NIOSH, regulatory agencies, health professionals, researchers, and labor organizations in establishing priorities for prevention strategies that include medical and engineering interventions, development of occupational standards, and the identification of research needs. Recognizing that the data from these surveys are becoming dated, a multidisciplinary team comprising members from various NIOSH research divisions was established to develop a hazard surveillance strategy for the Institute, including options for a national hazard surveillance survey and database. The proposed new hazard survey builds on lessons learned from the previous surveys, seeks opportunities to incorporate existing data from other sources, expands the scope of industries and hazards, and takes advantage of advances in data gathering, processing and dissemination technology. This article presents current considerations and recommendations for a new hazard survey and database.

Low-molecular-weight heparin prophylaxis: preoperative versus postoperative initiation in patients undergoing elective hip surgery

Administration of low-molecular-weight heparin prophylaxis in elective hip implant patients commonly begins 12 h preoperatively in European practices to optimize effectiveness, and 12 to 24 h postoperatively in North American practices to optimize safety. A meta-analysis comparing these two treatment regimes revealed that preoperative initiation demonstrated greater efficacy and superior safety for patients (10.0% rate of total deep-vein thrombosis vs. 15.3%, P = .023). In addition to the pre/postsurgical debate, proximity of initiation of low-molecular-weight heparin in relation to surgery is an issue of critical importance. Recent studies revealed that beginning therapy immediately within 2 h preoperatively or 6 h postoperatively dramatically decreased the risk of venous thrombosis. An investigation of low-molecular-weight heparin prophylaxis initiated 2 h before elective hip surgery or approximately 6 h after surgery compared with warfarin sodium revealed that total and proximal deep-vein thrombosis rates were reduced in patients receiving low-molecular-weight heparin compared with warfarin. The frequencies of deep-vein thrombosis for patients receiving preoperative and postoperative dalteparin vs. warfarin for all deep-vein thrombosis were 36 of 337 (10.7%, P < .001) and 44 of 336 (13.1%, P < .001) vs. 81 of 338 (24.0%); and for proximal deep-vein thrombosis were 3 of 354 (0.8%, P = .035) and 3 of 358 (0.8%, P = .033) vs. 11 of 363 (3.0%). Relative risk reductions for the dalteparin groups vs. warfarin ranged from 45% to 72%. In this case, low-molecular-weight heparin administered in close proximity to surgery provided superior efficacy over warfarin. Major bleeding was significantly increased with the preoperative regimen but not the postoperative regimen.

The economic impact of treating deep vein thrombosis with low-molecular-weight heparin: outcome of therapy and health economy aspects

Subcutaneous low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) is at least as safe and effective as classical intravenous heparin therapy for the treatment of proximal vein thrombosis. Anticoagulant monitoring and intravenous administration are not required with LMWH treatment, therefore this therapy may offer economic advantages. An economic evaluation of these therapeutic approaches was performed comparing the costs and effectiveness. The evaluation was aimed at helping decision-makers to maximize the health of the population served, subject to available resources. The American-Canadian Thrombosis Study was a multicentre, randomized, double-blind clinical trial that compared treatment by initial continuous intravenous infusion of heparin (followed by 3 months of warfarin therapy) with a once-daily dose of subcutaneous LMWH, tinzaparin sodium (followed by 3 months of warfarin treatment) in patients with acute proximal deep vein thrombosis. In the LMWH-treated group, the cost incurred for 100 patients was $399,403 (Canadian) or $335,687 (US) with a frequency of objectively documented recurrent venous thromboembolism of 2.8%. In the intravenous heparin-treated group, the cost incurred for 100 patients was $ 414,655 (Canadian) or $ 375,836 (US), with a frequency of objectively documented recurrent venous thromboembolism of 6.9%. These results show a cost saving of $ 15,252 (Canadian) or $ 40,149 (US) with the use of LMWH. Multiple sensitivity analyses did not alter the findings of the study which indicated that LMWH therapy is at least as safe and effective but less costly than intravenous heparin treatment. The potential for outpatient therapy in up to 37% of patients who are receiving LMWH would substantially augment the cost-saving. The cost-effectiveness findings presented in this paper are based on the assumption that all costs are covered by a single payer. Outpatient management in many countries will shift the healthcare costs from the healthcare payer to the patient, increasing the economic burden to the patient.

Withholding treatment in patients with acute pulmonary embolism who have a high risk of bleeding and negative serial noninvasive leg tests

PURPOSE

Patients who have nonmassive acute pulmonary embolism and a high risk of bleeding or contraindication to anticoagulants, such recent surgery or gastrointestinal bleeding, present a clinical dilemma. We sought to estimate whether such patients could be safely left untreated if serial compression ultrasound or serial impedance plethysmography were negative and cardiorespiratory reserve was adequate.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

The frequency of recurrent pulmonary embolism among patients with nonmassive acute pulmonary embolism and negative serial noninvasive leg tests who were not treated was estimated from two prospective studies of the noninvasive management of patients with suspected pulmonary embolism. One of the studies used serial impedance plethysmography of the lower extremities; the other used serial compression ultrasound. The prevalence of pulmonary embolism in patients with nondiagnostic ventilation/perfusion lung scans was determined from the Prospective Investigation of Pulmonary Embolism Diagnosis (PIOPED).

RESULTS

The estimated frequency of fatal recurrent pulmonary embolism was 1% [95% confidence interval (CI), 0% to 5%) among untreated patients with nonmassive pulmonary embolism who had negative serial impedance plethysmograms and 0% (95% CI, 0% to 4%) among those with negative serial compression ultrasonograms. The frequency of nonfatal recurrent pulmonary embolism among untreated patients was 3%, regardless of whether they had negative serial impedance plethysmograms or negative serial compression ultrasonograms. These results were comparable with the frequency of recurrent pulmonary embolism among patients treated with anticoagulants or with inferior vena cava filters.

CONCLUSION

Withholding treatment of nonmassive acute pulmonary embolism, if serial impedance plethysmograms or serial venous ultrasonograms are negative and cardiopulmonary reserve is adequate, is a possible strategy for the management of patients with a high risk of bleeding or other contraindication to anticoagulants. This strategy may be associated with fewer adverse events than treatment with anticoagulants or an inferior vena cava filter. Prospective trials comparing alternative treatments are needed.

Low-molecular-weight heparin prophylaxis using dalteparin in close proximity to surgery vs warfarin in hip arthroplasty patients: a double-blind, randomized comparison. The North American Fragmin Trial Investigators

BACKGROUND

Based on the current understanding that venous thrombosis starts perioperatively, administration of just-in-time low-molecular-weight heparin immediately before or in close proximity after hip arthroplasty may be more effective than usual clinical practice.

METHODS

We performed a randomized, double-blind trial comparing subcutaneous dalteparin sodium given once daily immediately before or early after surgery with the use of postoperative warfarin sodium in 1472 patients undergoing elective hip arthroplasties. The primary end point was deep vein thrombosis detected using contrast venography performed after surgery (mean, 5. 7 days) in each group.

RESULTS

The frequencies of deep vein thrombosis for patients with interpretable venograms receiving preoperative and postoperative dalteparin for all deep vein thrombosis were 36 (10.7%) of 337 (P<.001) and 44 (13.1%) of 336 (P<.001), respectively, vs 81 (24.0%) of 338 for warfarin; for proximal deep vein thrombosis, 3 (0.8%) of 354 (P =.04) and 3 (0.8%) of 358 (P =.03), respectively, vs 11 (3.0%) of 363. Relative risk reductions for the dalteparin groups ranged from 45% to 72%. Symptomatic thrombi were less frequent in the preoperative dalteparin group (5/337 patients [1.5%]) vs the warfarin group (15/338 patients [4.4%]) (P =.02). Serious bleeding was similar among groups. Increased major bleeding at the surgical site was observed for patients receiving preoperative dalteparin vs warfarin (P =.01).

CONCLUSIONS

A modified dalteparin regimen in close proximity to surgery resulted in substantive risk reductions for all and proximal deep vein thrombosis, compared with warfarin therapy. Such findings have not been observed with low-molecular-weight heparin therapy commenced 12 hours preoperatively or 12 to 24 hours postoperatively vs oral anticoagulants. Increased major but not serious bleeding occurred in patients receiving preoperative dalteparin. Dalteparin therapy initiated postoperatively provided superior efficacy vs warfarin without significantly increased overt bleeding.

Low-molecular-weight heparin prophylaxis using dalteparin extended out-of-hospital vs in-hospital warfarin/out-of-hospital placebo in hip arthroplasty patients: a double-blind, randomized comparison. North American Fragmin Trial Investigators

BACKGROUND

No randomized trials have directly evaluated the need for extended out-of-hospital thromboprophylaxis for patients who have hip arthroplasty in the United States or Canada. The uncertainty as to the need for extended prophylaxis in North American patients is complicated by early hospital discharge, resulting in a short thromboprophylaxis interval.

METHODS

To resolve this uncertainty, we performed a randomized double-blind trial in 569 patients who underwent hip arthroplasty comparing the use of dalteparin sodium started immediately before surgery or early after surgery and extended out-of-hospital to an overall interval of 35 days with the use of warfarin sodium in-hospital and placebo out-of-hospital.

RESULTS

For patients with interpretable venograms in the preoperative, postoperative, and combined dalteparin groups, new proximal vein thrombosis out-of-hospital was observed in 1.3%, 0. 7% (P =.04), and 1.0% (P =.02) of patients, respectively, compared with 4.8% in the in-hospital warfarin/out-of-hospital placebo group. The respective overall cumulative frequencies of all deep vein thrombosis were 30 (17.2%) of 174 patients (P<.001), 38 (22.2%) of 171 (P =.003), and 68 (19.7%) of 345 (P<.001) in the dalteparin groups compared with 69 (36.7%) of 188 for the in-hospital warfarin/out-of-hospital placebo group. For proximal deep vein thrombosis, the respective frequencies were 5 (3.1%) of 162 (P =.02), 3 (2.0%) of 151 (P =.007), and 8 (2.6%) of 313 (P =.002) compared with 14 (9.2%) of 153. No major bleeding occurred during the extended prophylaxis interval.

CONCLUSIONS

Extended dalteparin prophylaxis resulted in significantly lower frequencies of deep vein thrombosis compared with in-hospital warfarin therapy. Despite in-hospital thromboprophylaxis, patients having hip arthroplasty in the United States and Canada remain at moderate risk out-of-hospital. The number needed to treat provides a public health focus; only 24 to 28 patients require extended prophylaxis to prevent 1 new out-of-hospital proximal vein thrombosis. Recent studies demonstrate that asymptomatic deep vein thrombi cause the postphlebitic syndrome; thus, extended out-of-hospital prophylaxis will lessen the burden to both the patient and society.

Low-molecular-weight heparin vs heparin in the treatment of patients with pulmonary embolism. American-Canadian Thrombosis Study Group

BACKGROUND

Pulmonary embolism (PE) occurs in 50% or more of patients with proximal deep-vein thrombosis. Low-molecular-weight heparin treatment is effective and safe in patients with deep vein thrombosis and may also be so in patients with PE. Recent rigorous clinical trials have established objective criteria for determining a high probability of PE by perfusion lung scanning.

OBJECTIVE

To compare low-molecular-weight heparin with intravenous heparin for the treatment of patients with objectively documented PE and underlying proximal deep vein thrombosis.

METHODS

In a multicenter, double-blind, randomized trial, we compared fixed-dose subcutaneous low-molecular-weight heparin (tinzaparin sodium) given once daily with dose-adjusted intravenous heparin given by continuous infusion using objective documentation of clinical outcomes. Pulmonary embolism at study entry was documented by the presence of high-probability lung scan findings.

RESULTS

Of 200 patients with high-probability lung scan findings at study entry, none of the 97 who received low-molecular-weight heparin had new episodes of venous thromboembolism compared with 7 (6.8%) of 103 patients who received intravenous heparin (95% confidence interval for the difference, 1.9%-11.7%; P = .01). Major bleeding associated with initial therapy occurred in 1 patient (1.0%) who was given low-molecular-weight heparin and in 2 patients (1.9%) given intravenous heparin (95% confidence interval for the difference, -2.4% to 4.3%).

CONCLUSIONS

Low-molecular-weight heparin administered once daily subcutaneously was no less effective and probably more effective than use of dose-adjusted intravenous unfractionated heparin for preventing recurrent venous thromboembolism in patients with PE and associated proximal deep vein thrombosis. Our findings extend the use of low-molecular-weight heparin without anticoagulant monitoring to patients with submassive PE.

Treatment of Venous Thromboembolism with Low-Molecular-Weight Heparin

There is now ample evidence to indicate that certain low-molecular-weight heparins given subcutaneously can replace continuous intravenous unfractionated heparin for the initial treatment of venous thromboembolism. The low-molecular-weight heparins have a predictably high absorption rate when given subcutaneously and a prolonged duration of action, permitting them to be given by a once or twice daily injection for the prevention or treatment of venous thrombosis. Furthermore, treatment does not require laboratory monitoring, thus eliminating the need for continuous IV infusion and permitting the early discharge of patients with venous thromboembolism. This should eventually lead to the outpatient treatment of venous thromboembolism. Studies to date indicate that low-molecular-weight heparin is more cost-effective than unfractionated heparin in the treatment of venous thromboembolism and the cost effectiveness will be increased by out-of-hospital treatment. At the present time, the findings associated with any individual low-molecular-weight heparin preparation cannot be extrapolated to different low-molecular-weight heparins, and therefore each must be evaluated in separate clinical trials. The information to date is that low-molecular-weight heparin is safer and more effective than continuous intravenous unfractionated heparin in the treatment of proximal venous thrombosis. The decreased mortality rate seen in two clinical trials, particularly in patients with metastatic cancer, was quite unexpected. This requires further confirmation in larger prospective randomized trials.

A Noninvasive Approach for the Treatment of Patients with Suspected Pulmonary Embolism

The diagnosis of pulmonary embolism is challenging because the signs and symptoms are nonspecific, the findings on ventilation-perfusion lung scans are often nondiagnostic, and pulmonary angiography, although definitive, is not always available. We previously reported that serial noninvasive leg testing provided a practical, noninvasive alternative to pulmonary angiography in patients who had nondiagnostic lung scans and adequate cardiorespiratory reserve. In this prospective cohort study of 1564 patients with suspected pulmonary embolism, ventilation-perfusion lung scanning and serial impedance plethysmography were used to objectively assess prognosis. Only 12 of 627 patients (1.9%) with nondiagnostic lung scans but normal serial leg testing results who were not given anticoagulants had venous thromboembolism during long-term follow-up. Noninvasive serial leg testing can avoid the need for pulmonary angiography for the majority of patients, identify those with proximal vein thrombosis who require anticoagulant treatment, and avert treatment and further investigation of patients who have adequate cardiorespiratory reserve.

Extended prophylaxis against venous thromboembolism following total hip and knee replacement

The recently reported reductions in the incidence of post-operative venous thromboembolism (VTE) are related to the widespread use of prophylactic anticoagulants. Many uncertainties remain with regard to the most effective ways to use thromboprophylaxis, however. The trend towards shorter hospital stays means that patients may receive less than the recommended 7-10 days of prophylaxis. Prolonged periods of thromboprophylaxis may be beneficial for patients at high risk of post-operative VTE, such as those undergoing major orthopaedic surgery. The relative rarity of symptomatic deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism means that very large patient populations are required for studies that rely on clinical endpoints, but studies using venographic endpoints have shown 28-35 days of prophylaxis with low-molecular-weight heparin to be more effective than 10-14 days. Other factors that may influence the efficacy of thromboprophylaxis include the timing of the first injection and the choice of agent.

Long term outpatient prophylaxis for venous thromboembolism

Recent reductions in the incidence of postoperative venous thromboembolism are related to the widespread use of prophylactic anticoagulants, but many uncertainties about the most effective ways to use thromboprophylaxis remain. Orthopedic patients are at high risk of thromboembolism, and the trend towards shorter hospital stays means that they may receive less than the recommended 7 to 10 days of prophylaxis. Longer periods of thromboprophylaxis may be beneficial for high risk patients. The relative rarity of symptomatic deep-vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism means that very large patient populations are required for studies that rely on clinical endpoints, but studies using venographic endpoints have shown 30 days of prophylaxis with low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) to be more effective than 7 days. Other factors that may influence the efficacy of thromboprophylaxis include the timing of the first injection and the choice of agent.

Effectiveness of the Quick Medical Reference as a diagnostic tool

A number of computer-based systems with diagnostic capabilities have been developed for internal medicine. Quick Medical Reference (QMR) is one such program. The authors describe key features of QMR and report on their study of its effectiveness as a diagnostic tool. They investigated how frequently the correct diagnosis would appear among the 5 highest ranked diagnoses generated by QMR. The charts of 1144 consecutive patients admitted to a teaching unit were retrospectively screened. Eligible cases included those referred for investigation of an undiagnosed illness with an objectively proven final diagnosis (n = 154). Two physicians familiar with, but not experts in, the use of QMR entered clinical information abstracted from the patients' charts into the program. Physician A obtained the correct diagnosis in 62 (40%) of the 154 cases, and physician B was successful in 56 (36%) of the cases. The authors use study cases to illustrate QMR's strengths and weaknesses.

Thrombin inhibitors as anticoagulant agents

Hirudin and its analogues and the synthetic antithrombin agents are interesting new antithrombotic agents that have been studied in a number of well-designed randomized clinical trials and further studies are underway. These agents offer certain advantages over heparin and low-molecular-weight heparin, and at least one agent is orally bioavailable. Studies have shown that the specific thrombin inhibitors can significantly decrease the incidence of composite cardiac endpoints in acute ischemic syndromes (following thrombolysis for myocardial infarction, unstable angina, and non-Q wave myocardial infarction and coronary angioplasty), but it is disappointing that the benefits obtained during short-term treatment are not sustained in the long term. Recent data are reviewed here from clinical trials supporting the use of the specific antithrombin agents in the treatment of acute cardiac ischemic syndromes, the prevention and treatment of venous thromboembolism, and the management of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia.

Diagnosis of pulmonary embolism

The patient with suspected pulmonary embolism presents a challenging diagnostic problem. The symptoms and signs are nonspecific, and objective testing is required to establish or exclude the presence of pulmonary embolism. Lung scanning continues to be a first-line test, but in 40% to 70% of all patients, the results do not definitively provide indication for either giving or withholding anticoagulant treatment even when combined with the clinical assessment. Pulmonary angiography is the reference standard, but it is invasive and may not be available in all clinical settings. Pulmonary embolism is strongly associated with proximal deep-vein thrombosis of the legs (popliteal, femoral, or iliac vein thrombosis). Objective testing for proximal deep-vein thrombosis is useful in patients with suspected pulmonary embolism. A positive result from such testing provides an indication for anticoagulant treatment. Serial testing for proximal deep-vein thrombosis is a safe and effective alternative to pulmonary angiography in patients with adequate cardiorespiratory reserve. The assay for plasma D-dimer using either a rapid enzyme-linked immunospecific assay technique or a bedside whole-blood agglutination technique is promising as a test for excluding venous thromboembolism. A positive result by spiral CT imaging is useful for ruling in a diagnosis of pulmonary embolism, but the safety of withholding treatment in patients with negative spiral CT results remains uncertain. Pulmonary angiography continues to have an important role in selected patients in whom it is critical to definitively confirm or exclude the presence of pulmonary embolism.

The role of newer diagnostic techniques in the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism

Among the evolving techniques for the diagnosis of acute pulmonary embolism, contrast enhanced spiral CT takes a particularly prominent role because it is available at most centers, it images the pulmonary embolism directly, and it is minimally invasive. It has not yet been fully evaluated, however. Magnetic resonance angiography also has appeal for similar reasons. Few patients have been studied, however. Magnetic resonance angiography for pulmonary embolism is still in the early testing phase. Transesophageal echocardiography can image pulmonary embolism in central pulmonary arteries, but preliminary tests suggest that it has a low negative predictive value and cannot be used to exclude pulmonary embolism. Finally, it seems that a rapid and sensitive technique for measuring d-dimer may now be available, which may assist in eliminating the diagnosis of acute pulmonary embolism in a significant percentage of patients in whom the diagnosis is suspected.

Preoperative vs postoperative initiation of low-molecular-weight heparin prophylaxis against venous thromboembolism in patients undergoing elective hip replacement

BACKGROUND

Although preoperative and postoperative initiation of prophylaxis for deep vein thrombosis (DVT) with low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) are effective, the relative effectiveness and safety of these approaches is unknown. In the absence of a published definitive level 1 trial addressing this question, a meta-analysis is appropriate.

OBJECTIVE

To report a meta-analysis comparing preoperative with postoperative initiation of prophylaxis of DVT in patients undergoing elective hip replacement.

METHODS

Relevant trials were identified, and potential biases in the meta-analysis were minimized by analyzing all rigorously performed randomized trials that met all of the following criteria for conduct of the trial: (1) double-blind design, (2) objective documentation of the frequencies of DVT by ascending contrast venography, (3) venography performed before or at the time of discharge from the hospital, (4) initiation of the same LMWH preoperatively or postoperatively in dosages shown to be effective, (5) compliance with the criteria for a level 1 trial, and (6) objective documentation of major and minor bleeding according to strict criteria.

RESULTS

Treatment with LMWH initiated preoperatively was associated with a DVT frequency of 10.0% compared with a frequency of 15.3% when the LMWH was initiated postoperatively (P = .02, Fisher exact test). Major bleeding was less frequent in patients receiving preoperatively initiated LMWH than in patients receiving postoperatively initiated LMWH (0.9%, vs. 3.5%; P = .01, Fisher exact test).

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings support the need for a randomized comparison of preoperative and postoperative initiation of pharmacological prophylaxis of DVT. Such a trial would resolve the divergent practices for DVT prophylaxis between Europe and the North American countries, the United States and Canada, and would affect the treatment for thousands of patients on both continents.

Treatment and prevention of venous thromboembolism

Where available, low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) is the recommended approach for initial management of venous thromboembolism. When unfractionated heparin is administered, one of the cited heparin nomograms should be used to ensure that the heparin dose is sufficient to rapidly produce heparin levels in the therapeutic range for all patients. Because of the varying sensitivities of thromboplastins, each laboratory should correlate the activated partial thromboplastin time results with heparin's therapeutic range, which will correspond to 0.35 to 0.70 U of heparin/ml blood when using the antifactor Xa assay. Constant vigilance and a high level of suspicion are necessary to establish the clinical diagnosis of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia, and to institute appropriate therapy. When administering warfarin therapy, physicians should be aware of the sensitivity of the thromboplastin being used to provide the international normalized ratio (INR). To ensure that the patients are maintained within the target therapeutic range for INR (in most cases 2.0 to 3.0), the INR should be determined frequently, and the warfarin dosage should then be adjusted appropriately. Patients with an acute episode of venous thromboembolism should receive warfarin therapy for at least 3 months. At the present time, it is reasonable to treat the first recurrence with oral anticoagulants for 12 months and to indefinitely treat more than one recurrence. All patients at moderate to high risk for developing venous thromboembolism should receive prophylaxis. The approaches of proven value include low-dose heparin, LMWH, oral anticoagulants, and intermittent pneumatic compression.