Relationship of breastfeeding and formula-feeding practices with infant health outcomes in an urban poor population

The article reports a study examining symptoms of infection and use of medications and the health care system by breastfeeding or formula-feeding urban poor mothers. A prospective, self-report design was used. Mothers completed a demographic and anthropometric questionnaire, an infection checklist, and a medication and health care system survey. Results showed that more of the breastfeeders were white, older, and economically better off than formula feeders. Scores on the infection checklist were higher for those feeding their infants by bottle. Colds, rashes, episodes of vomiting, ear infections, colic, and health care utilization were less frequent for breastfed infants. This small study suggests that there is a protective effect of breastfeeding in this population and provides a basis for larger epidemiologic and cross-sectional studies.

Long-term follow-up of unsuccessful violent suicide attempts: risk factors for subsequent attempts

STUDY POPULATION

Of 9046 consecutive trauma admissions, all suicide attempts (n = 156) were identified: 38 patients (24%) died in hospital; 118 (76%) were discharged and received long-term follow-up (mean = 2.8 years). Factors assessed included suicidal ideation and planning, reason for attempt; number of attempts, methods, dates of prior and subsequent attempts; psychiatric diagnoses, substance abuse history, treatment and medication compliance, hospitalizations, incidence of family depression and suicide; education level, job history, and living conditions.

RESULTS

104 (88%) patients were interviewed and 14 (12%) were lost to follow-up. Seventy-seven of the patients (74%) used guns in their attempt; their mean ISS was 14.2. Seven (6.7%) made repeat suicide attempts (all unsuccessful). Late mortality was 7% (one related to index suicide, five to chronic illness, one to motor vehicle crash). Most patients (96%) had psychiatric diagnoses at discharge, 77 of 93 (83%) had diagnosed depression. Sixty-six percent (69 of 104) had histories of alcohol abuse, 42% (42 of 101) histories of drug abuse. Thirty-five percent (34 of 96) were noncompliant with psychiatric follow-up and 70% (16 of 23) were noncompliant with alcohol abuse treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

(1) Repeat attempts were rare (7%) after failed suicide attempts. (2) No late deaths resulted from repeat suicide attempts. (3) Risk factors associated with repeat attempts were younger age (p = 0.002), prior attempts (p = 0.02), family history of suicide (p = 0.03), schizophrenia (p = 0.005), and not living at home (p = 0.04). (4) Identifying patients with these risk factors, ensuring that they receive inpatient alcohol abuse treatment, along with sustained psychiatric treatment and help in maintaining home environments, may prevent repeat suicide attempts.

Wilderness injuries and illnesses

STUDY OBJECTIVE

To determine injury and illness patterns and occurrence rates during wilderness recreation.

DESIGN

Prospective injury and illness surveillance study.

SETTING

Wilderness areas throughout the Western hemisphere.

TYPE OF PARTICIPANTS

All students and instructors on National Outdoor Leadership School courses over a five-year period.

MAIN RESULTS

A single fatality occurred, resulting in a death rate of 0.28 per 100,000 person-days of exposure. Injuries occurred at a rate of 2.3 per 1,000 person-days of exposure. Sprains and strains and soft tissue injuries accounted for 80% of the injuries. The illness rate was 1.5 per 1,000 person-days of exposure. Sixty percent of illnesses were due to nonspecific viral illnesses or diarrhea; hygiene appeared to have a significant impact on the incidence of these illnesses. Thirty-nine percent of the injuries and illnesses required evacuation (1.5 per 1,000 person-days of exposure).

CONCLUSION

The injury and illness patterns indicate that wilderness medical efforts should concentrate on wilderness hygiene and management of musculoskeletal injuries and soft tissue wounds. The data also indicate that wilderness activities can be conducted relatively safely, but the decision to participate should be individualized, with an understanding of risks versus benefits.

Hand preference, immune system disorder and cognitive function among gay/bisexual men: the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS)

This study evaluated the self-reported patterns of handedness among a large subsample (n = 1612) of the gay/bisexual men comprising the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS). There was a small but significant elevation in left-handedness among gay/bisexual men compared to available normative data. However, there were no differences within the cohort in measures of immune function, self-reported autoimmune disorders, asthma, or hay fever, although there was an association between handedness and allergy. Performance on neuropsychological tests also did not differ as a function of handedness.

Trauma in pregnancy. Predicting pregnancy outcome

A multicenter study involving three American College of Surgeons Level 1 trauma centers was undertaken to assess parameters that may predict fetal outcome. The records of 93 injured pregnant patients admitted from April 1, 1985, to March 31, 1990, were reviewed. There were three maternal deaths (3%) (mean Injury Severity Score, 43). Fourteen fetal/neonatal deaths (15%) occurred during the acute care admission period. Of these, eight were fetal deaths (two associated with maternal death), four were cases of elective abortions, and two were neonatal deaths. In general, the maternal physiologic and laboratory parameters assessed failed to accurately predict pregnancy outcome, while Injury Severity Score did differ significantly between patients whose pregnancies were viable (Injury Severity Score = 6.2) and those whose pregnancies were nonviable (Injury Severity Score = 21.6). Unique to this study were the findings that the Glasgow Coma Score also differed significantly in patients with viable (Glasgow Coma Score, 14.5) and nonviable (Glasgow Coma Score, 12.0) pregnancies, while fetal heart rate at admission to the emergency department did not. In this study, the incidence of fetal death was increased following direct uteroplacental fetal injury (100% of cases), maternal shock (67%), pelvic fracture (57%), severe head injury (56%), and hypoxia (33%). The adequacy of noninvasive maternal monitoring in assessing fetal well-being is challenged, and a discussion of diagnostic modalities for assessment for the injured gravida is set forth.

Severely injured geriatric patients return to independent living: a study of factors influencing function and independence

Our previous work demonstrated that geriatric trauma patients (age greater than 65 years) consume disproportionate amounts of health care resources. In the past we hypothesized that late mortality is high, long-term outcome is poor, and return to independence is low in a severely injured geriatric population. Of 6,480 trauma admissions over 5 years, geriatric patients (n = 495) with blunt trauma injury (n = 421) and an ISS greater than 16 (n = 105) who survived until discharge (n = 61) underwent long-term follow-up (mean = 2.82 years). We surveyed 20 measures of functional ability; 10 measures of independence; availability and use of rehabilitation resources; employment history; alcohol use; support systems; and nursing home requirements. Of the 105 patients, 7 were subsequently lost to follow-up. Among the remaining 98, 44 (44.9%) died in hospital and 54 (55.1%) were discharged and interviewed. The mean age of the contacted patients was 72.6; their mean ISS was 23.3. Forty eight of 54 (88.9%) were alive at the time of interview, while 6/54 (11.1%) had died. Although only 8/48 patients regained their preinjury level of function, 32/48 (67%) returned to independent living. The 32 independent patients, those with "acceptable" outcome, were compared with an "unacceptable" outcome group composed of the 44 in-hospital deaths, the 6 late deaths, and the 16 dependent patients. Factors associated with poor outcome include a GCS score less than or equal to (p = 0.001), age greater than or equal to 75 (p = 0.004), shock upon admission (p = 0.014), presence of head injury (p = 0.03), and sepsis (p = 0.03).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Trauma patients return to productivity

Economic issues threaten the development of a national trauma system. Much work has focused on the cost of trauma care; little has been done to define society's long-term economic return. We asked three questions about high cost trauma patients: (1) Do they survive?, (2) Do they continue to require expensive care?, and (3) Do they return to productivity? Of 6,129 consecutive trauma admissions, 114 had hospital charges over $100,000 (mean = $143,000), 102 (89.5%) were discharged alive, and 10 (8.8%) were lost to followup. Ninety-two patients or families were interviewed at least 1 year (mean = 2.6 year) after discharge. There were 88 survivors and 4 deaths (3.5%). Of the 88 survivors 73% had no limitation of ADLs, 67% received rehabilitation, 58% were still improving, and 37% were involved in litigation. Five survivors (5.7%) were confined to a nursing home, 48 (54.5%) had returned to productivity (RTP), 35 (39.8%) were unemployed, and five of these still require medical therapy. We conclude: (1) The majority of high cost patients survive (89.5%) and return to productivity (54.5%); (2) the severity of injury predicts survival but not return to productivity; and (3) the RTP rate may be increased by addressing nonmedical need.

Evaluating quality, cost-effective health care. Vascular database predicated on hospital discharge abstracts

This population-based study examines all carotid endarterectomies (CE) performed by all surgeons in a single state over a 10-year period. The methodology is designed to determine morbidity rate, mortality rate, cost, and length of stay, as well as to understand the effect of pre-existing chronic disease, physician, and hospital volume on these outcome variables. The data source consisted of hospital discharge abstract data uniformly collected on all admissions (N = 5.9 million) to acute care hospitals in the state. In the decade 1979 to 1988, 11,199 patients underwent CE. Mortality rate from CE was 2.1%, and the postoperative stroke rate was 3.7% over this period. High physician volume decreased the mortality rate (p less than 0.05) and stroke rate (p less than 0.01) by 50% and significantly (p less than 0.001) reduced hospital cost and length of stay independent of patient complexity. Examination of cost data, adjusted for inflation, showed a decrease in mean cost for CE over the decade. Thus physicians are providing better care for less hospital dollars. Both patient and payor outcome is improved by concentrating CE patients in the hands of high-volume surgeons. Although the data suggests this trend is already evolving, the pace of this evolution can be expected to increase as payors recognize that regionalization of this procedure lowers costs.

Massive transfusion: outcome in blunt trauma patients

Over a 54-month period 6,142 patients were consecutively admitted to our Level I trauma center. Ninety-two blunt trauma patients required massive transfusion (MT) of 20 or more units of packed red blood cells (range, 20-126). Eighty-two per cent of all transfused blood was given within 24 hours of admission. Forty-eight patients (52%) were long-term survivors. Twenty-six patients died (28%) within 24 hours and 21 of these exsanguinated. Eighteen patients died greater than 24 hours: nine (50%) died from multiple organ failure, and nine (50%) died from severe closed head injury (CHI). Clinical predictors of increased mortality were: shock on admission, closed head injury, and age. Forty-three survivors were followed for a mean of 2.5 years (range, 1-5 years). No patient died during followup. All patients were home at 1 year; only four patients required continued medical assistance. Thirty-two patients (74%) returned to work. We conclude that: 1) blunt and penetrating trauma patients receiving MT have similar survival rates of 50%; 2) shock, closed head injury, and age predict increased mortality but do not preclude survival; 3) long-term outcome in blunt patients requiring MT is excellent. Post-discharge death is rare and 3/4 of the survivors return to work, justifying the high cost of acute care.

Mortality in trauma patients: the interaction between host factors and severity

Data on host factors influencing mortality in trauma patients is sparse and contradictory. To develop a model for health policy decisions, we examined all trauma admissions to acute care hospitals in the state of California in the year 1986. We looked at the influence of the following host factors: age, gender, and preinjury medical conditions, on mortality stratified by injury severity. The study group (N = 199,737) had an overall mortality rate of 1.9%. Mortality increased starting at age 40 years and was independently influenced by gender, the presence of pre-existing disease, and the body region injured. In patients with minor injury, mortality rates became higher in the elderly at age 65+. However, in patients with injuries of moderate severity, mortality increased in both middle age (40-64) and elderly groups (65+). Male gender was also a risk factor, present in both the elderly and middle age groups. While the presence of both pre-existing medical disease or injury to head or abdomen was related to increased mortality in middle-aged patients at all severity levels, neither accounted for the effect of gender. Conclusion. Age and gender influence mortality in trauma patients. These effects are not explained by documented pre-existing disease or region of injury. Age and gender serve only as observable markers for subgroups of patients with impaired response to injury. Middle-aged males comprise a previously unrecognized high-risk subgroup for this impaired response.

Alcohol and the adolescent trauma population

Trauma is the leading killer of children and adolescents between 1 and 21 years of age. Alcohol-impaired driving represents the single greatest cause of mortality and morbidity of children over the age of 6. We retrospectively reviewed 878 consecutive adolescent (age range, 16 to 20 years) trauma admissions for blood alcohol concentration (BAC). Four hundred sixty-seven patients had BAC drawn, 258 were BAC-negative (group I), 209 (48%) were BAC-positive (group II). The adolescent drinkers were then compared with a group of 748 adult drinkers (group III). Groups I and II differ in sex, age, time of day of the accident, Injury Severity Score, Glasgow Coma Score, and Revised Trauma Score, whereas group II and III differ by type of accident, type of injury, socioeconomic factors (bad debt), time of day of the injury, and BAC. There were no significant differences in TRISS predicted survival, actual survival, nor mean length of stay. We conclude that (1) alcohol is a significant contributor to injury during adolescence, and (2) adolescent drinkers differ from adult drinkers in their habits, demographics, and socioeconomic status. These socioeconomic differences have implications for the access to and cost-effectiveness of interventions.

Three or more rib fractures as an indicator for transfer to a Level I trauma center: a population-based study

The presence of major chest wall injury is an indication for transfer to a Level I trauma center. We hypothesized that the presence of three or more rib fractures on initial chest X-ray would identify a small subgroup of patients with a high probability of requiring trauma center care. All trauma discharges in Maryland between 1984 and 1986 (N = 105,683) were reviewed. Patients were divided by the presence of rib fractures (no rib fractures, 1-2 fractures, 3+ fractures) and age in years (0-13, 14-64, 65+).

RESULTS

The presence of three or more rib fractures in the pediatric age group was rare and precluded further evaluation. When comparing patients with 1-2 rib fractures versus 3 or more rib fractures, significant differences were found in mortality, mean Injury Severity Score, mean hospital stay and mean number of ICU days (p less than 0.001). The significant differences occurred in all age groups 14 years old and older. The presence of three or more rib fractures increased the relative risk of splenic injury (6.2) and liver injury (3.6) but did not predict the presence of aortic injury.

CONCLUSION

The presence of 3 or more rib fractures identifies a small subgroup of patients (2.4%) likely to require tertiary care. This triage tool is useful in all patients over the age of 14 years.

Estimating the distribution of times from HIV seroconversion to AIDS using multiple imputation. Multicentre AIDS Cohort Study

Multiple imputation is a model based technique for handling missing data problems. In this application we use the technique to estimate the distribution of times from HIV seroconversion to AIDS diagnosis with data from a cohort study of 4954 homosexual men with 4 years of follow-up. In this example the missing data are the dates of diagnosis with AIDS. The imputation procedure is performed in two stages. In the first stage, we estimate the residual AIDS-free time distribution as a function of covariates measured on the study participants with data provided by the participants who were seropositive at study entry. Specifically, we assume the residual AIDS-free times follow a log-normal regression model that depends on the covariates measured at enrolment on the seropositive participants. In the second stage we impute the date of AIDS diagnosis for the participants who seroconverted during the course of the study and are AIDS-free with use of the log-normal distribution estimated in the first stage and the covariates from each seroconverter's latest visit. The estimated proportions developing AIDS within 4 and within 7 years of seroconversion are 15 and 36 per cent respectively, with associated 95 per cent confidence intervals of (10, 21) and (26, 47) per cent. We discuss the Bayesian foundations of the multiple imputation technique and the statistical and scientific assumptions.

Comparison of computer- and interviewer-administered versions of the Diagnostic Interview Schedule

A group of 150 psychiatric patients were administered the Diagnostic Interview Schedule (DIS) on two occasions, once by a trained layperson and once using a computerized interview format in which the patient interacted directly with the computer. Agreement between the two methods on 15 diagnoses was relatively modest, as indicated by a mean kappa score of .51, but was similar to agreement rates reported in other studies of the DIS. The discrepancies may have been due to the high number of acutely ill inpatients studied, patients' reporting more symptoms in one of the interviews, and difficulty translating some of the DIS questions to the computer. Patients had positive feelings about both methods, but a significant majority liked the computer interview better and found it less embarrassing. The authors conclude that computerized administration of the DIS is as reliable as other methods but that exclusive reliance on the DIS for clinical diagnosis is inappropriate.

A comparison of the Diagnostic Interview Schedule and clinical diagnosis

The Diagnostic Interview Schedule (DIS) was administered to 220 psychiatric patients by lay interviewers. Kappas for agreement between DIS and chart diagnoses ranged from .39 to -.03 and averaged .14 for 13 diagnostic categories. Agreement was best for affective, obsessive-compulsive, and schizophrenic disorders and was poorest for phobias where patients overemphasized fears. The authors suggest that clinician evaluation of information collected by the DIS is important, especially in diagnosing individual cases.