Endovascular aortounifemoral grafts and femorofemoral bypass for bilateral limb-threatening ischemia

PURPOSE

Although axillobifemoral bypass procedures have a lower mortality rate than aortobifemoral bypass procedures, they are limited by decreased patency, moderate hemodynamic improvement, and the need for general anesthesia. This report describes an alternative approach to bilateral aortoiliac occlusive disease using unilateral endovascular aortofemoral bypass procedures in combination with standard femorofemoral reconstructions.

METHODS

Seven patients who had bilateral critical ischemia and tissue necrosis in association with severe comorbid medical illnesses underwent implantation of unilateral aortofemoral endovascular grafts, which were inserted into predilated, recanalized iliac arteries. The proximal end of the endovascular graft was fixed to the distal aorta or common iliac artery with a Palmaz stent. The distal end of the graft was suture-anastomosed to the ipsilateral patent outflow vessel, and a femorofemoral bypass procedure was then performed.

RESULTS

All endovascular grafts were successfully inserted through five occluded and two diffusely stenotic iliac arteries under either local (1), epidural (5), or general anesthesia (1). The mean thigh pulse volume recording amplitudes increased from 9 +/- 3 mm to 30 +/- 7 mm and from 6 +/- 2 mm to 26 +/- 4 mm ipsilateral and contralateral to the aortofemoral graft insertion, respectively. In all cases the symptoms completely resolved. Procedural complications were limited to one local wound hematoma. No graft thromboses occurred during follow-up to 28 months (mean, 17 months).

CONCLUSIONS

Endovascular iliac grafts in combination with standard femorofemoral bypass grafts may be an effective alternative to axillobifemoral bypass in high-risk patients who have diffuse aortoiliac occlusive disease, particularly when bilateral axillary-subclavian disease is present.

Initial experience with transluminally placed endovascular grafts for the treatment of complex vascular lesions

OBJECTIVES

Complex arterial occlusive, traumatic, and aneurysmal lesions may be difficult or impossible to treat successfully by standard surgical techniques when severe medical or surgical comorbidities exist. The authors describe a single center's experience over a 2 1/2-year period with 96 endovascular graft procedures performed to treat 100 arterial lesions in 92 patients.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Thirty-three patients had 36 large aortic and/or peripheral artery aneurysms, 48 had 53 multilevel limb-threatening aortoiliac and/or femoropopliteal occlusive lesions, and 11 had traumatic arterial injuries (false aneurysms and arteriovenous fistulas). Endovascular grafts were placed through remote arteriotomies under local (16[17%]), epidural (42[43%]), or general (38[40%]) anesthesia.

RESULTS

Technical and clinical successes were achieved in 91% of the patients with aneurysms, 91% with occlusive lesions, and 100% with traumatic arterial lesions. These patients and grafts have been followed from 1 to 30 months (mean, 13 months). The primary and secondary patency rates at 18 months for aortoiliac occlusions were 77% and 95%, respectively. The 18-month limb salvage rate was 98%. Immediately after aortic aneurysm exclusion, a total of 6 (33%) perigraft channels were detected; 3 of these closed within 8 weeks. Endovascular stented graft procedures were associated with a 10% major and a 14% minor complication rate. The overall 30-day mortality rate for this entire series was 6%.

CONCLUSIONS

This initial experience with endovascular graft repair of complex arterial lesions justifies further use and careful evaluation of this technique for major arterial reconstruction.

Eleven-year experience with tibiotibial bypass: an unusual but effective solution to distal tibial artery occlusive disease and limited autologous vein

PURPOSE

The absence of sufficient length of suitable autologous vein occasionally prohibits the treatment of severe distal lower extremity arterial occlusive disease with a standard distal bypass originating from the common femoral artery. During the past 11 years, we have therefore selectively performed short distal bypasses originating from the infrapopliteal arteries in patients with limb-threatening ischemia and occlusive lesions limited to the distal tibial and peroneal arteries. This report summarizes our experience with these tibial artery based distal bypasses.

METHODS

Forty-two distal lower extremity arterial bypasses originating from infrapopliteal arteries in 41 patients were performed over an 11-year period. Autologous vein was used as the bypass conduit in all cases. Extensions from a more proximal bypass were excluded.

RESULTS

The primary patency rate of these tibiotibial bypasses was 77% at 1 year and 62% after 5 years. The limb salvage rate after 5 years was 74%. The perioperative mortality rate was low (2%), but the 5-year patient survival rate (64%) was similar to that with more standard lower extremity arterial reconstructive procedures.

CONCLUSIONS

Tibiotibial bypass is an effective limb salvage procedure in carefully selected patients with distal tibial artery occlusive disease and limited autologous vein. It offers a durable means of distal revascularization in circumstances in which a standard operation might not be desirable or possible.

Basilic vein transposition: an underused autologous alternative to prosthetic dialysis angioaccess

PURPOSE

Provision of lifelong angioaccess for hemodialysis generally requires multiple procedures. To extend the availability of each extremity as an access site, we have used the transposed basilic vein for fistula construction since 1988. Our purpose is to present our initial experience, with follow-up of 30 months.

METHODS

We have used the transposed proximal basilic vein in 65 procedures to construct an autogenous arteriovenous fistula (AVF) to the brachial artery in 58 patients without suitable superficial venous anatomy. There were 25 males and 33 females, with a mean age of 47 years (range 10 to 77). The basilic vein transposition was the initial angioaccess procedure in only 25% of cases and secondary in 75%. Three additional patients underwent exploration of an inadequate basilic vein with subsequent prosthetic grafting.

RESULTS

There were no operative deaths. Two postoperative complications included a wound infection and a transient steal syndrome. The actuarial life-table patency rate for all successfully completed AVFs was 49% at 30 months. Late revisions with continued patency were required in 11 cases, including repair of a focal stenosis in six, pseudoaneurysm resection in two, and thrombectomy in one. Sixty-seven percent of patients who required subsequent prosthetic grafting for a failed basilic vein AVF had an ipsilateral procedure. Patient preference for the opposite arm was the usual indication for contralateral grafting in the remainder.

CONCLUSIONS

The transposed basilic vein AVF was technically feasible in 95% of cases, can frequently be performed in patients with multiple previous access procedures, does not compromise the arm for future prosthetic grafting, and has a long-term patency rate that is comparable to more traditional autologous AVFs. This underused procedure should be considered before placement of polytetrafluoroethylene graft for long-term angioaccess.

Analysis of balloon dilatation of human vein graft stenoses

Controversy continues as to whether percutaneous transluminal angioplasty (PTA) or surgical revision is the ideal modality for the treatment of failing grafts. This prompted a histopathologic analysis of failing human vein graft segments subjected to ex vivo balloon dilatation to define variables responsible for the discrepant results. Fifteen vein graft lesions from 14 patients with failing infrainguinal bypasses were recovered after surgical excision. Each graft lesion was focal and uniform in length (2.1 +/- 0.3 cm). Rings sectioned from adjacent regions of each vein graft lesion before and after balloon inflation were processed for histologic study, photomicrography, and image analysis. Angioplasty balloon size was selected on the basis of preoperative arteriograms. Graft lesions were divided into three groups based on lesion thickness and the degree of fibrosis and cellularity seen on sections stained with Masson's trichrome. The luminal area before angioplasty was not significantly different for the three groups (p > 0.2). Vein grafts with thick intimas (group 1) had significantly less luminal dilatation after angioplasty as compared with less thick intimal lesions (groups 2 and 3; p < 0.001). Those lesions with varying degrees of cellularity (groups 2 and 3) showed no significant differences in luminal diameter after angioplasty. However, the cellular lesions in group 2 consistently formed multiple intimal flaps that could produce PTA failures even with good luminal restoration. The varying histology of vein graft lesions and associated differences in intimal thickness and cellularity may be responsible for the inconsistent results following PTA. Estimates of wall thickness before angioplasty, particularly in the intimal area, may be helpful in evaluating which lesions might benefit most from PTA.

Correction of steal syndrome secondary to hemodialysis access fistulas: a simplified quantitative technique

Correction of symptomatic vascular steal distal to an arteriovenous fistula requires either fistula ligation or banding. Ligation carries the obvious disadvantage of destruction of a functioning angioaccess, whereas banding procedures have been plagued by the complexity of many of the reported techniques and by the difficulty of balancing fistula flow with distal perfusion. In this study a simple plication technique is described that avoids the introduction of any additional foreign material and that quantifies distal perfusion by means of intraoperative pulse volume recordings. Five patients have been treated by this method, two with autologous vein fistulas and three with bridge fistulas using polytetrafluorethylene. All five have had resolution of their ischemic symptoms with an increase in intraoperative pulse volume recordings of 5 mm or more. Only three of the patients had restoration of the radial pulse, which was not a specific end point of the banding procedure. Furthermore, all fistulas remained patent for at least 6 months and continued to provide adequate flows for hemodialysis. Banding/plication is clearly preferable to fistula closure for the management of steal syndrome. The method described herein is simple and hemodynamically identifies the minimal constriction that will resolve symptoms and preserve fistula flow.

Limb salvage surgery in end stage renal disease: is it worthwhile?

The role of limb salvage surgery in patients with end stage renal disease (ESRD) is controversial. In view of this debate, we reviewed our experience with 54 primary and 15 secondary revascularizations for limb salvage in patients with ESRD over the past decade. Thirty-seven patients required dialysis and 10 had functioning renal transplants. Severe limb threatening ischemia was the indication for all revascularizations. The 2-year cumulative secondary graft patency rate was 56.2% with an associated limb salvage rate of 71.4%. There was no significant difference in graft patency or limb salvage rates between patients requiring dialysis and those with functioning renal allografts (p = 0.5). The 30-day operative mortality for the 99 surgical procedures (69 arterial bypasses and 30 additional operations) was 13% and the 2-year patient survival was 45.6%. Six of the 15 amputations were performed despite a patent graft on limbs which had extensive infection and gangrene. We conclude that limb salvage surgery should only be undertaken with recognition of these risks in patients with ESRD or functioning renal transplants. Surgery should be performed before gangrene and infection become extensive. Patients with unrelenting infection or mid-forefoot gangrene should be considered for primary amputation.

Successful conservative management of iatrogenic femoral arterial trauma

We have developed a protocol for nonoperative management of pseudoaneurysms and arteriovenous fistulas secondary to cardiac catheterization. Hemodynamically stable patients were placed at bed rest and underwent serial physical examination, hematocrit, and duplex ultrasonography for a minimum of three days prior to discharge and subsequently as outpatients. Sixteen initially stable patients out of 56 with femoral artery catheter trauma managed over a four-year period underwent deliberate conservative management. Their lesions included six arteriovenous fistulas, seven pseudoaneurysms, and three patients with both complications. All but one of the pseudoaneurysms resolved spontaneously within four weeks regardless of initial size or associated arteriovenous fistula. One patient receiving anticoagulant therapy required surgery for bleeding after a three-day period of observation of a pseudoaneurysm. Six of the nine arteriovenous fistulas also resolved within the initial period of observation. The remaining three have been followed for four to 20 months and have remained asymptomatic. Nonoperative therapy of catheter-related femoral artery trauma is both safe and effective. Conservative management avoids potential wound complications associated with dissection through surrounding hematoma as well as the additional hospitalization required for postoperative care. We recommend a period of observation for all hemodynamically stable patients with catheter-induced pseudoaneurysms and arteriovenous fistulas of the femoral vessels, with surgery reserved for hemorrhage, expanding masses, or compromised cardiac output.

Epidural versus general anesthesia for infrainguinal arterial reconstruction

A prospective evaluation of 213 consecutive infrainguinal bypass procedures was performed to determine the effect of anesthesia technique on the postoperative complication rate. Limb salvage was the indication for surgery in 92% of cases. No significant differences were observed in age, sex, indication for surgery, presence of cardiovascular and pulmonary risk factors, American Society of Anesthesiologists classification, or Goldman scores between patients receiving epidural anesthesia and those receiving general endotracheal anesthesia. Epidural anesthesia was used for 96 procedures and general endotracheal anesthesia was used in 117 cases. Cardiac complications for the epidural anesthesia and general endotracheal anesthesia groups, respectively, included a mortality rate of 5% versus 3%, nonfatal infarctions in 6% versus 7%, and reversible cardiac events in 14% versus 16%. A high-risk subgroup of 69 patients (American Surgical Association classes IV and V or Goldman score greater than 10 points) also had no significant difference in outcome between epidural anesthesia and general endotracheal anesthesia. Major noncardiac complications occurred in an additional 8% of each group. Regional and general anesthesia therefore produce equivalent cardiovascular risk for infrainguinal arterial reconstruction. These results suggest that indicated operations should not be postponed or avoided for patients either requiring or requesting general anesthesia. Furthermore, other investigations of cardiac risk in vascular surgery do not require a uniform anesthetic technique for valid interpretation of results.

Venous insufficiency is not the cause of leg ulcers in sickle cell disease

Leg ulcers are a well recognized complication of sickle cell disease that has been attributed to venous insufficiency. We studied 16 patients with sickle cell disease and active ulcers using venous pulse volume recordings and photoplethysmography (Doppler studies). Based on hemodynamic monitoring, all 16 patients exhibited rapid refilling times, findings that imply venous insufficiency but are also compatible with high-output syndrome or arteriovenous shunting. Direct invasive venous pressure measurements of these patients demonstrated normal pressures in all of the four patients tested. A different set of four patients underwent venography, which also failed to demonstrate venous incompetence. We hypothesize that anemia results in an increase in peripheral arteriovenous shunting in the extremities and that this, together with the high-output syndrome of sickle cell disease, produces plethysmography readings that may be confused with findings observed in venous insufficiency. We conclude that measurements of vascular stasis, as recorded by plethysmography, are usually misinterpreted in sickle cell disease. Normal manometric pressure readings and normal venographic studies suggest that venous insufficiency is not a primary factor in sickle cell leg ulcer formation.

Impact of nonoperative therapy on the clinical management of peripheral arterial disease

Nonoperative therapy includes conservative noninterventional modalities and the endovascular interventional modalities of percutaneous transluminal angioplasty and a variety of laser systems and atherectomy devices. The role and impact of all nonoperative treatments are considered in the perspectives of the natural history of lower-extremity arteriosclerosis and its present surgical (operative) treatment. Nonoperative treatments may replace and/or facilitate surgical treatment in operative candidates. Nonoperative methods may also justify treatment in patients who cannot or should not be subjected to surgery. Facts and opinions relating to these uses of nonoperative treatments are presented, and the qualifications and credentialing of individuals who should be treating patients with lower-extremity ischemia resulting from peripheral arteriosclerosis are discussed.

Indications for distal arterial reconstruction in the presence of palpable pedal pulses

Eight patients with severe pedal ischemia in the presence of palpable foot pulses are described. All had atherosclerosis, and seven patients also had diabetes. There were two anatomic patterns of disease, including supramalleolar obstruction with reconstitution of pulsatile flow in three patients and segmental occlusion of the pedal vessels in five. All patients underwent arterial reconstructive surgery. Patency was sustained in six patients, with limb salvage in five and below-knee amputation in one patient for persistent necrosis and infection of an open amputation. Of the two eventual bypass failures, a transmetatarsal amputation continued to heal in one patient, and the other required amputation below the knee. Palpable pedal pulses and satisfactory ankle/brachial indexes did not rule out the presence of surgically correctable distal arterial occlusive disease. Therefore arteriography is indicated in any patient with persistent forefoot ischemia that fails to respond to conservative measures. The safety and patency of the distal reconstructive procedures performed in this series suggest that salvage of weight-bearing tissue and rapid healing, as well as limb salvage, are legitimate indications for revascularization.

Changing arteriosclerotic disease patterns and management strategies in lower-limb-threatening ischemia

From January 1, 1974 to December 31, 1989, we treated 2829 patients with critical lower-extremity ischemia. In the last 5 years, 13% of patients had therapeutically significant stenoses or occlusions above and below the groin, while 35% had them at two or three levels below the inguinal ligament. Unobstructed arterial flow to the distal half of the thigh was present in 26% of patients, and 16% had unobstructed flow to the upper third of the leg with occlusions of all three leg arteries distal to this point and reconstitution of some patent named artery in the lower leg or foot. In the last 2 years, 99% of all patients with a threatened limb and without severe organic mental syndrome or midfoot gangrene were amenable to revascularization by percutaneous transluminal angioplasty (PTA), arterial bypass, or a combination of the two, although some distal arteries used for bypass insertion were heavily diseased or isolated segments without an intact plantar arch. Limb salvage was achieved and maintained in more than 90% of recent patient cohorts, with a mean procedural mortality rate of 3.3%. Recent strategies that contributed to these results include (1) distal origin short vein grafts from the below-knee popliteal or tibial arteries to an ankle or foot artery (291 cases); (2) combined PTA and bypass (245 cases); (3) more distal PTA of popliteal and tibial artery stenoses (233 cases); (4) use of in situ or ectopic reversed autogenous vein for infrapopliteal bypasses, even when vein diameter was 3 to 4 mm; (5) composite-sequential femoropopliteal-distal (PTFE/vein) bypasses; (6) reintervention when a procedure thrombosed (637 cases) or was threatened by a hemodynamically significant inflow, outflow, or graft lesion (failing graft, 252 cases); (7) frequent follow-up to detect threatening lesions before graft thrombosis occurred and to permit correction of lesions by PTA (58%) or simple reoperation; and (8) unusual approaches to all infrainguinal arteries to facilitate secondary operations, despite scarring and infection. Primary major amputation rates decreased from 41% to 5% and total amputation rates decreased from 49% to 14%. Aggressive policies to save threatened limbs thus are supported.

Influence of vein size (diameter) on infrapopliteal reversed vein graft patency

We reviewed 239 infrapopliteal reversed greater saphenous vein graft bypasses placed for critical ischemia over a 7-year period to determine the influence of vein diameter on graft patency and limb salvage. Grafts were assigned to four groups based on the minimum external diameter measured during operation: less than 3.0 mm, n = 18; 3.0 mm, n = 59; 3.5 mm, n = 67; and greater than or equal to 4.0 mm, n = 145. A pattern of increasing graft patency and limb salvage among the four groups was noted as the minimum external diameter increased from less than 3.0 mm to greater than or equal to 4.0 mm. When compared to the larger grafts greater than or equal to 4.0 mm, primary graft patency was significantly lower both for less than 3.0 mm grafts (0% for less than 3.0 mm vs 65% for greater than or equal to 4.0 mm at 3 years, p less than 0.001) and for long (greater than 45 cm) 3.0 mm grafts (38% for long 3.0 mm vs 75% for greater than or equal to 4.0 mm at 2 years, p less than 0.005). All 3.5 mm and short (less than 45 cm) 3.0 mm grafts had patency rates similar to greater than or equal to 4.0 mm veins. Thus long 3.0 mm and all less than 3.0 mm reversed saphenous vein grafts should be considered at high risk for failure. Veins with fibrotic, thick-walled segments identified during operation (n = 19) had patency rates significantly lower than nonfibrotic veins (n = 270; p less than 0.01), and this may play a role in the failure of some less than 3.0 mm minimum external diameter vein grafts.

Safety of peripheral vascular surgery after recent acute myocardial infarction

We have treated 30 patients requiring urgent or emergent vascular procedures in the first 6 weeks after a myocardial infarction (median 11 days) from 1977 through 1989. Forty operations were performed, including 28 lower extremity revascularizations, 10 major amputations and revisions, and two carotid endarterectomies. There were four postoperative deaths (three cardiac related) and two nonfatal reinfarctions. Cardiac complications did not correlate with age, interval from myocardial infarction to surgery within the initial 6 weeks, type of anesthesia, or complexity of operation. Twenty of 24 patients survived attempts at leg revascularization, with ultimate limb salvage in 16. Our cardiac complication rate of 17% (5/30 patients) was reasonably close to that predicted by the Goldman risk scale for classes II and III and significantly better than class IV and also better than that predicted by the Cooperman risk scale for vascular surgery, despite the more recent preoperative myocardial infarctions in our patients. We attribute our low morbidity and mortality to the extracavitary nature of the procedures and possibly to improvements in anesthetic and perioperative management. Patients requiring urgent revascularization for limb salvage should not be denied surgery on the basis of a recent myocardial infarction.

Limited role of arteriography in penetrating neck trauma

Of the patients with penetrating neck wounds treated between 1979 and 1986, 61 patients with 65 injuries had arteriography during their evaluation. Twenty-seven patients had stab wounds and 34 had gunshot wounds, with a relatively equal distribution between the zones of injury. Fifty-seven arteriograms were normal and six were abnormal. Of the six arteriographic defects, three were thought to be spurious on subsequent review, two were clinically insignificant, and one required surgery. No significant arterial injuries were identified by arteriography in the absence of suggestive physical findings. No major arterial injuries were discovered during neck surgery that were missed preoperatively. Neither abnormal nor normal angiograms significantly altered the course of management, including the approach to neck exploration. These data suggest that arteriography for penetrating neck trauma is usually unnecessary for observation of patients in stable condition without suggestive physical findings. Thorough neck exploration with dissection of the carotid sheath in patients with physical diagnostic criteria for surgery eliminates the need for angiography in most cases and avoids the consequences of a possible false-negative study.

Successful conservative therapy of severe limb-threatening ischemia: the value of nonsympathectomy

Fourteen patients with severely ischemic extremities but relatively minor degrees of pedal gangrene or ulceration were managed without surgery. Contraindications to direct arterial reconstruction included significant intercurrent illness or generally poor surgical risk, the need for reoperative or difficult distal reconstruction, or the favorable characteristics of the actual lesion. Management consisted of bed rest, simple saline soaks, occasional gentle debridement, and antibiotics when indicated. Seven patients had complete resolution of their lesions for 3 to 48 months, and seven had improvement or stabilization for 3 to 18 months. Only three of the 14 patients have eventually required surgery with limb salvage in one. Revascularization remains the method of choice for managing most severely ischemic extremities. However, the conservative approach described represents an alternative to early amputation, attempts at revascularization, or lumbar sympathectomy in some patients with advanced ischemia. Studies of sympathectomy and pharmacologic agents as effective treatment for ischemic ulcers or gangrene should include control groups treated with the conservative measures outlined herein.

Treatment of hypoglycemia in infants and children. Surgical considerations

Pancreatic resection was required in 11 pediatric patients over a 14 year period for control of persistent hypoglycemia. A standard surgical approach based on pathologic considerations was utilized. A subtotal distal pancreatectomy, liver biopsy, and removal of additional adenomatous tissue when found was performed in each patient. This approach precluded the need for routine preoperative visceral angiography, which is currently reserved for patients who require a second exploration. Surgery was curative in patients with adenomatous disease, although patients with diffuse pancreatic lesions usually required continued pharmacologic therapy postoperatively. Two patients thus far have had a total pancreatectomy performed at a second laparatomy due to persistent intractable disease. Seizure disorders, mental retardation, and behavioral problems frequently were unresponsive to improved control of hypoglycemia. An aggressive approach to management of this disorder is required if permanent neurologic damage is to be minimized.

Arm ischemia secondary to giant cell arteritis

Six cases of arterial insufficiency of the arm secondary to giant cell arteritis are described, all in elderly white women. The clinical presentation of the occlusive disease ranged from an asymptomatic incidental physical finding to an alarming picture of severe ischemia. All patients were treated with steroids and had subsequent stabilization or improvement of extremity symptoms. Vascular reconstruction was also performed in two patients, one of whom developed rest pain after graft occlusion. Another patient had a cerebral infarction while taking prednisone, despite control of large vessel vasculitis. This study indicates that giant cell arteritis should be considered in cases of occlusive disease of the arms, especially in elderly women. Giant cell arteritis is a seriously morbid and potentially fatal disease which justifies a thorough evaluation when sufficient evidence is present to suggest the diagnosis. The response to steroids is usually adequate to eliminate the need for early surgical intervention.

Treatment of finger ischemia with Bier block reserpine

Fourteen patients with severe Raynaud symptoms, including four patients with ulceration of the fingers, were treated by regional medical sympathectomy achieved by the tourniquet controlled intravenous injection of reserpine. Nine of the patients had significant objective clinical improvement which, in each patient, correlated with the demonstration of vasospasm on pretreatment studies. The five patients without improvement had advanced organic obstructive arterial disease without vasospasm.

Evaluation and management of patients with Raynaud's syndrome

The wide spectrum of associated disorders, the previous lack of understanding of pathogenesis, and the older, arbitrary terminology in relation to ultimate prognosis have led to confusion in the evaluation and management of Raynaud's syndrome. A unified concept of pathogenesis, in which vasospasm and arterial occlusive disease are the fundamental lesions, is presented herein. The associated disorders found in our 219 patients with continuous follow-up are listed and related to the underlying pathogenetic mechanisms. Our approach to diagnosis led to the discovery of an associated condition in 71 percent of our patients. The evaluation can be done in a cost-effective manner. The emphasis of treatment should be on conservative medical management, with avoidance of cold and tobacco and judicious use of pharmacologic agents remaining the cornerstones of therapy. Cervicothoracic sympathectomy has no role in the treatment of Raynaud's syndrome.