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Stasko K, Close S, King B, Geary J, Garrity H, Schott D, Bagley J, Crown D, Ellis M, Sturtevant O, Emmert A, Ritz J, Nikiforow S. How optimizing efficiency for autologous stem cell collection can set the stage for novel cell therapy growth in multiple departments. Cytotherapy 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcyt.2018.02.207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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Yu H, Batenchuk C, Badzio A, Boyle TA, Czapiewski P, Chan DC, Lu X, Gao D, Ellison K, Kowalewski AA, Rivard CJ, Dziadziuszko R, Zhou C, Hussein M, Richards D, Wilks S, Monte M, Edenfield W, Goldschmidt J, Page R, Ulrich B, Waterhouse D, Close S, Jassem J, Kulig K, Hirsch FR. PD-L1 Expression by Two Complementary Diagnostic Assays and mRNA In Situ Hybridization in Small Cell Lung Cancer. J Thorac Oncol 2016; 12:110-120. [PMID: 27639678 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtho.2016.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2016] [Revised: 08/24/2016] [Accepted: 09/02/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Therapeutic antibodies to immune checkpoints show promising results. Programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1), an immune checkpoint ligand, blocks the cancer immunity cycle by binding the PD-L1 receptor (programmed death 1). We investigated PD-L1 protein expression and messenger RNA (mRNA) levels in SCLC. METHODS PD-L1 protein expression and mRNA levels were determined by immunohistochemistry (IHC) with SP142 and Dako 28-8 PD-L1 antibodies and in situ hybridization in primary tumor tissue microarrays in both tumor cells and tumor-infiltrating immune cells (TIICs) obtained from a limited-disease SCLC cohort of 98 patients. An additional cohort of 96 tumor specimens from patients with extensive-disease SCLC was assessed for PD-L1 protein expression in tumor cells with Dako 28-8 antibody only. RESULTS The overall prevalence of PD-L1 protein expression in tumor cells was 16.5%. In the limited-disease cohort, the prevalences of PD-L1 protein expression in tumor cells with SP142 and Dako 28-8 were 14.7% and 19.4% (tumor proportion score cutoff ≥1%) and PD-L1 mRNA ISH expression was positive in 15.5% of tumor samples. Increased PD-L1 protein/mRNA expression was associated with the presence of more TIICs (p < 0.05). The extensive-disease cohort demonstrated a 14.9% positivity of PD-L1 protein expression in tumor cells with Dako 28-8 antibody. CONCLUSIONS A subset of SCLCs is characterized by positive PD-L1 and/or mRNA expression in tumor cells. Higher PD-L1 and mRNA expression correlate with more infiltration of TIICs. The prevalence of PD-L1 in SCLC is lower than that published for NSCLC. The predictive role of PD-L1 expression in SCLC treatment remains to be established.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Yu
- Division of Medical Oncology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado
| | | | | | - Theresa A Boyle
- Division of Medical Oncology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado; Department of Pathology, Moffitt Cancer Center, Tampa, Florida
| | - Piotr Czapiewski
- Department of Pathomorphology, Medical University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Daniel C Chan
- Division of Medical Oncology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado
| | - Xian Lu
- Department of Biostatisitics and Informatics, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado
| | - Dexiang Gao
- Department of Biostatisitics and Informatics, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado
| | - Kim Ellison
- Division of Medical Oncology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado
| | - Ashley A Kowalewski
- Division of Medical Oncology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado
| | - Christopher J Rivard
- Division of Medical Oncology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado
| | - Rafal Dziadziuszko
- Department of Oncology and Radiotherapy, Medical University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Caicun Zhou
- Department of Oncology, Shanghai Pulmonary Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Tongji University Institute, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Maen Hussein
- Florida Cancer Specialists and Research Institute, Ocala, Florida
| | | | - Sharon Wilks
- Cancer Care Centers of South Texas, San Antonio, Texas
| | | | - William Edenfield
- Institute for Translational Oncology Research of Greenville Health System, Greenville, South Carolina
| | | | - Ray Page
- The Center for Cancer and Blood Disorders, Fort Worth, Texas
| | - Brian Ulrich
- Texas Oncology-Wichita Falls, Texoma Cancer Center, Wichita Falls, Texas
| | | | | | - Jacek Jassem
- Department of Oncology and Radiotherapy, Medical University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
| | | | - Fred R Hirsch
- Division of Medical Oncology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado.
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Mok TSK, Geater SL, Su WC, Tan EH, Yang JCH, Chang GC, Han M, Komarnitsky P, Payumo F, Garrus JE, Close S, Park K. A Randomized Phase 2 Study Comparing the Combination of Ficlatuzumab and Gefitinib with Gefitinib Alone in Asian Patients with Advanced Stage Pulmonary Adenocarcinoma. J Thorac Oncol 2016; 11:1736-44. [PMID: 27448761 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtho.2016.05.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2016] [Revised: 05/24/2016] [Accepted: 05/30/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION A randomized phase 2 study was designed to compare the combination of ficlatuzumab (AV-299), a humanized hepatocyte growth factor-neutralizing monoclonal antibody, plus gefitinib versus gefitinib monotherapy in a pulmonary adenocarcinoma population clinically enriched for EFGR tyrosine kinase inhibitor-sensitizing mutations. METHODS A total of 188 patients were randomized 1:1 to receive either gefitinib or ficlatuzumab plus gefitinib treatment. Patients who demonstrated disease control in the single-agent gefitinib arm were allowed to cross over to ficlatuzumab plus gefitinib treatment upon disease progression. Molecular analyses included tumor EGFR mutation status and retrospective proteomic testing using VeriStrat, a multivariate test based on mass spectrometry. RESULTS The addition of ficlatuzumab to gefitinib did not provide significant improvement over gefitinib monotherapy for the primary end point of overall response rate or the secondary end points of progression-free survival and overall survival. In the subgroup classified as VeriStrat poor, the addition of ficlatuzumab to gefitinib showed significant improvement in both progression-free survival and overall survival in both the intent-to-treat population and the subgroup with EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitor-sensitizing mutations. For all patients, the most frequent adverse events were diarrhea, dermatitis acneiform, and paronychia. CONCLUSIONS Although the trial showed no significant benefit from the addition of ficlatuzumab to gefitinib in the overall population of Asian patients with advanced-stage pulmonary adenocarcinoma, the biomarker data suggest that patients classified as VeriStrat poor may benefit from ficlatuzumab combination therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tony Shu Kam Mok
- State Key Laboratory of South China, Department of Clinical Oncology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Republic of China.
| | | | - Wu-Chou Su
- National Cheng Kung University Hospital, Tainan City, Republic of China
| | | | - James Chi-Hsin Yang
- National Taiwan University Hospital and National Taiwan University Cancer Center, Taipei, Republic of China
| | - Gee-Chen Chang
- Division of Chest Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Taichung Veterans General Hospital, Taichung, Republic of China
| | - May Han
- AVEO Oncology, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | | | | | | | | | - Keunchil Park
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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Levy B, Hu ZI, Cordova KN, Close S, Lee K, Becker D. Clinical Utility of Liquid Diagnostic Platforms in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer. Oncologist 2016; 21:1121-30. [PMID: 27388233 DOI: 10.1634/theoncologist.2016-0082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2016] [Accepted: 04/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED : A firmer understanding of the genomic landscape of lung cancer has recently led to targeted, therapeutic advances in non-small cell lung cancer. Historically, the reference standard for the diagnosis and genetic interrogation for advanced-stage patients has been tissue acquisition via computed tomography-guided core or fine needle aspiration biopsy. However, this process can frequently put the patient at risk and remains complicated by sample availability and tumor heterogeneity. In addition, the time required to complete the diagnostic assays can negatively affect clinical care. Technological advances in recent years have led to the development of blood-based diagnostics or "liquid biopsies" with great potential to quickly diagnose and genotype lung cancer using a minimally invasive technique. Recent studies have suggested that molecular alterations identified in cell-free DNA (cfDNA) or circulating tumor DNA can serve as an accurate molecular proxy of tumor biology and reliably predict the response to tyrosine kinase therapy. In addition, several trials have demonstrated the high accuracy of microRNA (miRNA) platforms in discerning cancerous versus benign nodules in high-risk, screened patients. Despite the promise of these platforms, issues remain, including varying sensitivities and specificities between competing platforms and a lack of standardization of techniques and downstream processing. In the present report, the clinical applications of liquid biopsy technologies, including circulating tumor cells, proteomics, miRNA, and cfDNA for NSCLC, are reviewed and insight is provided into the diagnostic and therapeutic implications and challenges of these platforms. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE Although tumor biopsies remain the reference standard for the diagnosis and genotyping of non-small cell lung cancer, they remain fraught with logistical complexities that can delay treatment decisions and affect clinical care. Liquid diagnostic platforms, including cell-free DNA, proteomic signatures, RNA (mRNA and microRNA), and circulating tumor cells, have the potential to overcome many of these barriers, including rapid and accurate identification of de novo and resistant genetic alterations, real-time monitoring of treatment responses, prognosis of outcomes, and identification of minimal residual disease. The present report provides insights into new liquid diagnostic platforms in non-small cell lung cancer and discusses the promise and challenges of their current and future clinical use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Levy
- Icahn School of Medicine, Mount Sinai Health System, New York, New York, USA
| | - Zishuo I Hu
- Icahn School of Medicine, Mount Sinai Health System, New York, New York, USA
| | | | | | - Karen Lee
- Icahn School of Medicine, Mount Sinai Health System, New York, New York, USA
| | - Daniel Becker
- Veterans Affairs Hospital, New York University, New York, New York, USA
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Goss GD, Lee KH, Felip E, Cobo M, Syrigos KN, Göker E, Georgoulias V, Guclu SZ, Isla D, Min YJ, Morabito A, Close S, Dupuis N, Chand VK, Solca F, Krämer N, Gibson N, Ehrnrooth E, Soria JC. Evaluation of VeriStrat, a serum proteomic test, in the randomized, open-label, phase 3 LUX-Lung 8 (LL8) trial of afatinib (A) versus erlotinib (E) for the second-line treatment of advanced squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) of the lung. J Clin Oncol 2016. [DOI: 10.1200/jco.2016.34.15_suppl.e20510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Glenwood D. Goss
- Division of Medical Oncology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Ki Hyeong Lee
- Chungbuk National University College of Medicine, Cheongju, South Korea
| | | | | | | | - Erdem Göker
- Ege University Faculty of Medicine, Izmir, Turkey
| | - Vassilis Georgoulias
- Department of Medical Oncology, University Hospital of Heraklion, Heraklion, Crete, Greece
| | | | | | - Young J. Min
- Department of Medicine, Ulsan University Hospital, Ulsan, South Korea
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Nicole Krämer
- Staburo GmbH, Munich, Germany on behalf of Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmBH & Co. KG, Biberach, Germany
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Borgia JA, Bonomi P, Garrus J, Saleem F, Lobato GC, Fhied CL, Basu S, Roder J, Close S, Batus M, Fidler MJ. Association of acute phase proteins with a serum proteomic test in previously treated patients with NSCLC. J Clin Oncol 2016. [DOI: 10.1200/jco.2016.34.15_suppl.e20649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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Goel A, Tarantino PM, Lauben DS, Close S. Design and testing of miniaturized plasma sensor for measuring hypervelocity impact plasmas. Rev Sci Instrum 2015; 86:043304. [PMID: 25933852 DOI: 10.1063/1.4917276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
An increasingly notable component of the space environment pertains to the impact of meteoroids and orbital debris on spacecraft and the resulting mechanical and electrical damages. Traveling at speeds of tens of km/s, when these particles, collectively referred to as hypervelocity particles, impact a satellite, they vaporize, ionize, and produce a radially expanding plasma that can generate electrically harmful radio frequency emission or serve as a trigger for electrostatic discharge. In order to measure the flux, composition, energy distribution, and temperature of ions and electrons in this plasma, a miniaturized plasma sensor has been developed for carrying out in-situ measurements in space. The sensor comprises an array of electrostatic analyzer wells split into 16 different channels, catering to different species and energy ranges in the plasma. We present results from numerical simulation based optimization of sensor geometry. A novel approach of fabricating the sensor using printed circuit boards is implemented. We also describe the test setup used for calibrating the sensor and show results demonstrating the energy band pass characteristics of the sensor. In addition to the hypervelocity impact plasmas, the plasma sensor developed can also be used to carry out measurements of ionospheric plasma, diagnostics of plasma propulsion systems, and in other space physics experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Goel
- Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
| | - P M Tarantino
- Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
| | - D S Lauben
- Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
| | - S Close
- Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
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Goodsaid FM, Amur S, Aubrecht J, Burczynski ME, Carl K, Catalano J, Charlab R, Close S, Cornu-Artis C, Essioux L, Fornace AJ, Hinman L, Hong H, Hunt I, Jacobson-Kram D, Jawaid A, Laurie D, Lesko L, Li HH, Lindpaintner K, Mayne J, Morrow P, Papaluca-Amati M, Robison TW, Roth J, Schuppe-Koistinen I, Shi L, Spleiss O, Tong W, Truter SL, Vonderscher J, Westelinck A, Zhang L, Zineh I. Voluntary exploratory data submissions to the US FDA and the EMA: experience and impact. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2010; 9:435-45. [DOI: 10.1038/nrd3116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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Man M, Farmen M, Dumaual C, Teng CH, Moser B, Irie S, Noh GJ, Njau R, Close S, Wise S, Hockett R. Genetic variation in metabolizing enzyme and transporter genes: comprehensive assessment in 3 major East Asian subpopulations with comparison to Caucasians and Africans. J Clin Pharmacol 2010; 50:929-40. [PMID: 20173083 DOI: 10.1177/0091270009355161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The advent of high-throughput technologies has proven valuable in the assessment of genetic differences and their effects on drug activation, metabolism, disposition, and transport. However, most studies to date have focused on a small number of genes or few alleles, some of which are rare and therefore observed infrequently or lacked rigorous ethnic characterization, thus reducing the ability to extrapolate within and among populations. In this study, the authors comprehensively assessed the allele frequencies of 165 variants comprising 27 drug-metabolizing enzyme and transporter (DMET) genes from 2188 participants across 3 major ethnic populations: Caucasians, Africans, and East Asians. This sample size was sufficiently large to demonstrate genetic differences among these major ethnic groups while concomitantly confirming similarities among East Asian subpopulations (Korean, Han Chinese, and Japanese). A comprehensive presentation of allele and genotype frequencies is included in the online supplement, and 3 of the most widely studied cytochrome P450 (CYP) genes, CYP2D6, CYP2C19, and CYP2C9; 2 non-CYP enzymes, NAT1 and TMPT; and 2 transporter genes, SLCO1B1 and SLCO2B1, are presented herein according to ethnic classification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Man
- Discovery and Development Statistics, Eli Lilly and Company, Lilly Corporate Center DC 2026, Indianapolis, IN 46285, USA.
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Bromley CM, Close S, Cohen N, Favis R, Fijal B, Gheyas F, Liu W, Lopez-Correa C, Prokop A, Singer JB, Snapir A, Tchelet A, Wang D, Goldstaub D. Designing pharmacogenetic projects in industry: practical design perspectives from the Industry Pharmacogenomics Working Group. Pharmacogenomics J 2008; 9:14-22. [PMID: 18794908 DOI: 10.1038/tpj.2008.11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Pharmacogenetic association studies have the potential to identify variations in DNA sequence which impact drug response. Identifying these DNA variants can help to explain interindividual variability in drug response; this is the first step in personalizing dosing and treatment regimes to a patient's needs. There are many intricacies in the design and analysis of pharmacogenetic association studies, including having adequate power, selecting proper endpoints, detecting and correcting the effects of population stratification, modeling genetic and nongenetic covariates accurately, and validating the results. At this point there are no formal guidelines on the design and analysis of pharmacogenetic studies. The Industry Pharmacogenomics Working Group has initiated discussions regarding potential guidelines for pharmacogenetic study design and analyses (http://i-pwg.org) and the results from these discussions are presented in this paper.
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Affiliation(s)
- C M Bromley
- BioStat Solutions Inc., Mount Airy, MD 21771, USA.
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Adams DH, Close S, Farmen M, Downing AM, Breier A, Houston JP. Dopamine receptor D3 genotype association with greater acute positive symptom remission with olanzapine therapy in predominately caucasian patients with chronic schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. Hum Psychopharmacol 2008; 23:267-74. [PMID: 18320559 DOI: 10.1002/hup.930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To test association of dopamine receptor D3 (DRD-3) gene polymorphisms with olanzapine response in genetic samples from a registration phase clinical trial. METHODS Eighty-eight acutely ill patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder were genotyped for ser-9-gly (rs6280) and 23 other polymorphisms within the DRD-3 gene. Allelic association of clinical response (mean baseline- to-endpoint reduction in Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale [PANSS] total and subscores) over 6 weeks of olanzapine treatment was assessed using repeated measures analysis of variance. RESULTS Ser-9-gly genotypes were associated with differences in PANSS total score improvement from baseline to 6 weeks (p = 0.021). This association was most notable for improvement in positive symptoms (p = 0.0001), with patients with gly/gly genotype significantly more responsive. More patients with the gly/gly genotype had greater positive symptom remission (endpoint rating of minimal or none on all PANSS positive items, 39.1%) compared with patients with gly/ser and ser/ser genotypes (13.8%; p = 0.033). DRD-3 polymorphisms in disequilibrium with ser-9-gly were also significantly associated with greater positive symptom improvement (p = 0.0009-0.021), and one not in complete linkage disequilibrium, with lesser improvement (p = 0.027). CONCLUSIONS Gly/gly DRD-3 genotype predicted statistically and clinically significantly better acute positive symptom reduction compared with other ser-9-gly genotypes in patients treated with olanzapine.
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Affiliation(s)
- David H Adams
- Lilly Research Laboratories, Indianapolis, Indiana 46285, USA.
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Daly TM, Dumaual CM, Miao X, Farmen MW, Njau RK, Fu DJ, Bauer NL, Close S, Watanabe N, Bruckner C, Hardenbol P, Hockett RD. Multiplex assay for comprehensive genotyping of genes involved in drug metabolism, excretion, and transport. Clin Chem 2007; 53:1222-30. [PMID: 17510302 DOI: 10.1373/clinchem.2007.086348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Drug metabolism is a multistep process by which the body disposes of xenobiotic agents such as therapeutic drugs. Genetic variation in the enzymes involved in this process can lead to variability in a patient's response to medication. METHODS We used molecular-inversion probe technology to develop a multiplex genotyping assay that can simultaneously test for 1227 genetic variants in 169 genes involved in drug metabolism, excretion, and transport. Within this larger set of variants, we performed analytical validation of a clinically defined core set of 165 variants in 27 genes to assess accuracy, imprecision, and dynamic range. RESULTS In a test set of 91 samples, genotyping accuracy for the core set probes was 99.8% for called genotypes, with a 1.2% no-call (NC) rate. The majority of the core set probes (133 of 165) had < or = 1 genotyping failure in the test set; a subset of 12 probes was responsible for the majority of failures (mainly NC). Genotyping results were reproducible upon repeat testing with overall within- and between-run variation of 1.1% and 1.4%, respectively-again, primarily NCs in a subset of probes. The assay showed stable genotyping results over a 6-fold range of input DNA. CONCLUSIONS This assay generates a comprehensive assessment of a patient's metabolic genotype and is a tool that can provide a more thorough understanding of patient-to-patient variability in pharmacokinetic responses to drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas M Daly
- Eli Lilly and Company, Lilly Corporate Center, Indianapolis, Indiana 46285, USA
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