1
|
McPherson HR, Duval C, Baker SR, Hindle MS, Cheah LT, Asquith NL, Domingues MM, Ridger VC, Connell SDA, Naseem KM, Philippou H, Ajjan RA, Ariëns RAS. Fibrinogen αC-subregions critically contribute blood clot fibre growth, mechanical stability, and resistance to fibrinolysis. eLife 2021; 10:e68761. [PMID: 34633287 PMCID: PMC8553339 DOI: 10.7554/elife.68761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Fibrinogen is essential for blood coagulation. The C-terminus of the fibrinogen α-chain (αC-region) is composed of an αC-domain and αC-connector. Two recombinant fibrinogen variants (α390 and α220) were produced to investigate the role of subregions in modulating clot stability and resistance to lysis. The α390 variant, truncated before the αC-domain, produced clots with a denser structure and thinner fibres. In contrast, the α220 variant, truncated at the start of the αC-connector, produced clots that were porous with short, stunted fibres and visible fibre ends. These clots were mechanically weak and susceptible to lysis. Our data demonstrate differential effects for the αC-subregions in fibrin polymerisation, clot mechanical strength, and fibrinolytic susceptibility. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the αC-subregions are key for promoting longitudinal fibre growth. Together, these findings highlight critical functions of the αC-subregions in relation to clot structure and stability, with future implications for development of novel therapeutics for thrombosis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Helen R McPherson
- Discovery and Translational Science Department, Leeds Institute of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine, University of LeedsLeedsUnited Kingdom
| | - Cedric Duval
- Discovery and Translational Science Department, Leeds Institute of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine, University of LeedsLeedsUnited Kingdom
| | - Stephen R Baker
- Department of Physics, Wake Forest UniversityWinston SalemUnited States
| | - Matthew S Hindle
- Discovery and Translational Science Department, Leeds Institute of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine, University of LeedsLeedsUnited Kingdom
| | - Lih T Cheah
- Discovery and Translational Science Department, Leeds Institute of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine, University of LeedsLeedsUnited Kingdom
| | - Nathan L Asquith
- Division of Hematology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical SchoolBostonUnited States
| | - Marco M Domingues
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular - João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de LisboaLisbonPortugal
| | - Victoria C Ridger
- Department of Infection, Immunity and Cardiovascular Disease, University of SheffieldSheffieldUnited Kingdom
| | - Simon DA Connell
- Molecular and Nanoscale Physics Group, University of LeedsLeedsUnited Kingdom
| | - Khalid M Naseem
- Discovery and Translational Science Department, Leeds Institute of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine, University of LeedsLeedsUnited Kingdom
| | - Helen Philippou
- Discovery and Translational Science Department, Leeds Institute of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine, University of LeedsLeedsUnited Kingdom
| | - Ramzi A Ajjan
- Discovery and Translational Science Department, Leeds Institute of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine, University of LeedsLeedsUnited Kingdom
| | - Robert AS Ariëns
- Discovery and Translational Science Department, Leeds Institute of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine, University of LeedsLeedsUnited Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Shi Y, Gauer JS, Baker SR, Philippou H, Connell SD, Ariëns RAS. Neutrophils can promote clotting via FXI and impact clot structure via neutrophil extracellular traps in a distinctive manner in vitro. Sci Rep 2021; 11:1718. [PMID: 33462294 PMCID: PMC7814028 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-81268-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Neutrophils and neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) have been shown to be involved in coagulation. However, the interactions between neutrophils or NETs and fibrin(ogen) in clots, and the mechanisms behind these interactions are not yet fully understood. In this in vitro study, the role of neutrophils or NETs on clot structure, formation and dissolution was studied with a combination of confocal microscopy, turbidity and permeation experiments. Factor (F)XII, FXI and FVII-deficient plasmas were used to investigate which factors may be involved in the procoagulant effects. We found both neutrophils and NETs promote clotting in plasma without the addition of other coagulation triggers, but not in purified fibrinogen, indicating that other factors mediate the interaction. The procoagulant effects of neutrophils and NETs were also observed in FXII- and FVII-deficient plasma. In FXI-deficient plasma, only the procoagulant effects of NETs were observed, but not of neutrophils. NETs increased the density of clots, particularly in the vicinity of the NETs, while neutrophils-induced clots were less stable and more porous. In conclusion, NETs accelerate clotting and contribute to the formation of a denser, more lysis resistant clot architecture. Neutrophils, or their released mediators, may induce clotting in a different manner to NETs, mediated by FXI.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Y Shi
- LIGHT Laboratories, Discovery and Translational Science Department, Institute of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine, University of Leeds, Clarendon Way, Leeds, LS2 9LU, UK
| | - J S Gauer
- LIGHT Laboratories, Discovery and Translational Science Department, Institute of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine, University of Leeds, Clarendon Way, Leeds, LS2 9LU, UK
| | - S R Baker
- LIGHT Laboratories, Discovery and Translational Science Department, Institute of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine, University of Leeds, Clarendon Way, Leeds, LS2 9LU, UK
- Department of Physics, Wake Forest University, Winston Salem, NC, USA
| | - H Philippou
- LIGHT Laboratories, Discovery and Translational Science Department, Institute of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine, University of Leeds, Clarendon Way, Leeds, LS2 9LU, UK
| | - S D Connell
- The Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, Molecular & Nanoscale Physics, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
| | - R A S Ariëns
- LIGHT Laboratories, Discovery and Translational Science Department, Institute of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine, University of Leeds, Clarendon Way, Leeds, LS2 9LU, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Soteriou C, Kalli AC, Connell SD, Tyler AII, Thorne JL. Advances in understanding and in multi-disciplinary methodology used to assess lipid regulation of signalling cascades from the cancer cell plasma membrane. Prog Lipid Res 2020; 81:101080. [PMID: 33359620 DOI: 10.1016/j.plipres.2020.101080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2020] [Revised: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The lipid bilayer is a functional component of cells, forming a stable platform for the initiation of key biological processes, including cell signalling. There are distinct changes in the lipid composition of cell membranes during oncogenic transformation resulting in aberrant activation and inactivation of signalling transduction pathways. Studying the role of the cell membrane in cell signalling is challenging, since techniques are often limited to by timescale, resolution, sensitivity, and averaging. To overcome these limitations, combining 'computational', 'wet-lab' and 'semi-dry' approaches offers the best opportunity to resolving complex biological processes involved in membrane organisation. In this review, we highlight analytical tools that have been applied for the study of cell signalling initiation from the cancer cell membranes through computational microscopy, biological assays, and membrane biophysics. The cancer therapeutic potential of extracellular membrane-modulating agents, such as cholesterol-reducing agents is also discussed, as is the need for future collaborative inter-disciplinary research for studying the role of the cell membrane and its components in cancer therapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C Soteriou
- School of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Leeds, Leeds LS29JT, UK; Leeds Institute of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine and Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK; Molecular and Nanoscale Physics Group, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
| | - A C Kalli
- Leeds Institute of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine and Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
| | - S D Connell
- Molecular and Nanoscale Physics Group, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
| | - A I I Tyler
- School of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Leeds, Leeds LS29JT, UK
| | - J L Thorne
- School of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Leeds, Leeds LS29JT, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Mistry D, Connell SD, Mickthwaite SL, Morgan PB, Clamp JH, Gleeson HF. Coincident molecular auxeticity and negative order parameter in a liquid crystal elastomer. Nat Commun 2018; 9:5095. [PMID: 30514842 PMCID: PMC6279820 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-07587-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2018] [Accepted: 11/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Auxetic materials have negative Poisson's ratios and so expand rather than contract in one or several direction(s) perpendicular to applied extensions. The auxetics community has long sought synthetic molecular auxetics - non-porous, inherently auxetic materials which are simple to fabricate and avoid porosity-related weakening. Here, we report, synthetic molecular auxeticity for a non-porous liquid crystal elastomer. For strains above ~0.8 applied perpendicular to the liquid crystal director, the liquid crystal elastomer becomes auxetic with the maximum negative Poisson's ratio measured to date being -0.74 ± 0.03 - larger than most values seen in naturally occurring molecular auxetics. The emergence of auxeticity coincides with the liquid crystal elastomer backbone adopting a negative order parameter, QB = -0.41 ± 0.01 - further implying negative liquid crystal ordering. The reported behaviours consistently agree with theoretical predictions from Warner and Terentjev liquid crystal elastomer theory. Our results open the door for the design of synthetic molecular auxetics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D Mistry
- School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK.
| | - S D Connell
- School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
| | - S L Mickthwaite
- Leeds Electron Microscopy and Spectroscopy Centre, School of Chemical and Process Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
| | - P B Morgan
- Eurolens Research, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
| | - J H Clamp
- UltraVision CLPL, Commerce Way, Leighton Buzzard, LU7 4RW, UK
| | - H F Gleeson
- School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Vizzini S, Martínez-Crego B, Andolina C, Massa-Gallucci A, Connell SD, Gambi MC. Ocean acidification as a driver of community simplification via the collapse of higher-order and rise of lower-order consumers. Sci Rep 2017. [PMID: 28642608 PMCID: PMC5481442 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-03802-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Increasing oceanic uptake of CO2 is predicted to drive ecological change as both a resource (i.e. CO2 enrichment on primary producers) and stressor (i.e. lower pH on consumers). We use the natural ecological complexity of a CO2 vent (i.e. a seagrass system) to assess the potential validity of conceptual models developed from laboratory and mesocosm research. Our observations suggest that the stressor-effect of CO2 enrichment combined with its resource-effect drives simplified food web structure of lower trophic diversity and shorter length. The transfer of CO2 enrichment from plants to herbivores through consumption (apparent resource-effect) was not compensated by predation, because carnivores failed to contain herbivore outbreaks. Instead, these higher-order consumers collapsed (apparent stressor-effect on carnivores) suggesting limited trophic propagation to predator populations. The dominance of primary producers and their lower-order consumers along with the loss of carnivores reflects the duality of intensifying ocean acidification acting both as resource-effect (i.e. bottom-up control) and stressor-effect (i.e. top-down control) to simplify community and trophic structure and function. This shifting balance between the propagation of resource enrichment and its consumption across trophic levels provides new insights into how the trophic dynamics might stabilize against or propagate future environmental change.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S Vizzini
- Department of Earth and Marine Sciences, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy. .,CoNISMa, Roma, Italy.
| | | | - C Andolina
- Department of Earth and Marine Sciences, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy.,Department of Environmental Sciences, Informatics and Statistics, DAIS, University Ca' Foscari, Venice, Italy
| | - A Massa-Gallucci
- Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Department of Integrative Marine Ecology, Villa Dohrn Benthic Ecology Center (Ischia), Naples, Italy
| | - S D Connell
- Southern Seas Ecology Laboratories, School of Biological Sciences & Environment Institute, University of Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - M C Gambi
- Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Department of Integrative Marine Ecology, Villa Dohrn Benthic Ecology Center (Ischia), Naples, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Allan P, Uitte de Willige S, Abou-Saleh RH, Connell SD, Ariëns RAS. Evidence that fibrinogen γ' directly interferes with protofibril growth: implications for fibrin structure and clot stiffness. J Thromb Haemost 2012; 10:1072-80. [PMID: 22463367 DOI: 10.1111/j.1538-7836.2012.04717.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Fibrinogen contains an alternatively spliced γ-chain (γ'), which mainly exists as a heterodimer with the common γA-chain (γA/γ'). Fibrinogen γ' has been reported to inhibit thrombin and modulate fibrin structure, but the underlying mechanisms are unknown. OBJECTIVE We aimed to investigate the molecular mechanism underpinning the influence of γ' on fibrin polymerization, structure and viscoelasticity. METHODS γA/γA and γA/γ' fibrinogens were separated using anion exchange chromatography. Cross-linking was controlled with purified FXIIIa and a synthetic inhibitor. Fibrin polymerization was analyzed by turbidity and gel-point time was measured using a coagulometer. We used atomic force microscopy (AFM) to image protofibril formation while final clot structure was assessed by confocal and scanning electron microscopy. Clot viscoelasticity was measured using a magnetic microrheometer. RESULTS γA/γ' fibrin formed shorter oligomers by AFM than γA/γA, which in addition gelled earlier. γA/γ' clots displayed a non-homogenous arrangement of thin fibers compared with the uniform arrangements of thick fibers for γA/γA clots. These differences in clot structure were not due to thrombin inhibition as demonstrated in clots made with reptilase. Non-cross-linked γA/γA fibrin was approximately 2.7 × stiffer than γA/γ'. Cross-linking by FXIIIa increased the stiffness of both fibrin variants; however, the difference in stiffness increased to approximately 4.6 × (γA/γA vs. γA/γ'). CONCLUSIONS Fibrinogen γ' is associated with the formation of mechanically weaker, non-uniform clots composed of thin fibers. This is caused by direct disruption of protofibril formation by γ'.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- P Allan
- Molecular and Nanoscale Physics Group, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Chan DD, Van Dyke WS, Bahls M, Connell SD, Critser P, Kelleher JE, Kramer MA, Pearce SM, Sharma S, Neu CP. Mechanostasis in apoptosis and medicine. Prog Biophys Mol Biol 2011; 106:517-24. [PMID: 21846479 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2011.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2011] [Accepted: 08/02/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Mechanostasis describes a complex and dynamic process where cells maintain equilibrium in response to mechanical forces. Normal physiological loading modes and magnitudes contribute to cell proliferation, tissue growth, differentiation and development. However, cell responses to abnormal forces include compensatory apoptotic mechanisms that may contribute to the development of tissue disease and pathological conditions. Mechanotransduction mechanisms tightly regulate the cell response through discrete signaling pathways. Here, we provide an overview of links between pro- and anti-apoptotic signaling and mechanotransduction signaling pathways, and identify potential clinical applications for treatments of disease by exploiting mechanically-linked apoptotic pathways.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D D Chan
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Connell SD. Urban structures as marine habitats: an experimental comparison of the composition and abundance of subtidal epibiota among pilings, pontoons and rocky reefs. Mar Environ Res 2001; 52:115-125. [PMID: 11525426 DOI: 10.1016/s0141-1136(00)00266-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
There remains little understanding of the relationship between the ecologies of urban habitats (pilings and pontoons) and natural habitats (rocky reef) for sessile plants and animals (epibiota) living on urbanised coasts. This study describes the structure of subtidal assemblages of epibiota among pilings, pontoons and adjacent rocky reef in Sydney Harbour, Australia. I tested the prediction that the experimental provision of substrata of the same age and composition in all three habitats would produce assemblages that: (1) differed among all three habitats; and (2) differed most on floating pontoons relative to the two fixed habitats (pilings and reef). As predicted, the results suggested that both pilings and pontoons, particularly the latter, create novel habitats for epibiotic assemblages independent of age and composition of substratum. It is not fully understood why these urban structures act as such different habitats from natural rocky reefs. The important point is that they are different and we are yet to understand the implications of this for the ecology of coastal areas subject to urbanisation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S D Connell
- Centre for Research on Ecological Impacts of Coastal Cities, Marine Ecology Laboratories A11, University of Sydney, NSW, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Danesh A, Connell SD, Davies MC, Roberts CJ, Tendler SJ, Williams PM, Wilkins MJ. An in situ dissolution study of aspirin crystal planes (100) and (001) by atomic force microscopy. Pharm Res 2001; 18:299-303. [PMID: 11442268 DOI: 10.1023/a:1011046728622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To observe in situ and on individual aspirin crystal faces the comparative rates and processes of dissolution of the dominant faces. METHODS The kinetics of the dissolution rate of two aspirin crystal planes (001) and (100) under 0.05M HCl are studied in situ at room temperature using Atomic Force Microscopy. The dissolution process of each crystal plane was followed by observed changes in topographic features. RESULTS The results revealed that crystal plane (001) dissolves by receding step edges, and has a dissolution rate of 0.45 nm s(-1). Conversely. plane (100) displays crystal terrace sinking at an average rate of 2.93 nm s(-1). Calculated intrinsic dissolution values (g s(-1) cm(-2)) for planes (001) and (100) are 1.37 x 10(-7) gs(-1) cm(-2) and 8.36 x 10(-7) gs(-1) cm(-2), respectively. CONCLUSIONS These values indicate that the rate of flux of material from plane (100) is approximately six times greater than that from plane (001), under 0.05M HCl. Interpretation of the data, based upon intrinsic dissolution rates and dissolution rate velocities, correlate with reported variations in the dissolution behavior of commercial aspirin products. These observations illustrate the suitability of the technique for characterizing the dissolution behavior of crystalline drugs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A Danesh
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Nottingham, UK
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Underwood AJ, Chapman MG, Connell SD. Observations in ecology: you can't make progress on processes without understanding the patterns. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 2000; 250:97-115. [PMID: 10969165 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-0981(00)00181-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Coastal marine ecology is, quite properly, increasingly focussed on experimental tests of hypotheses about processes. These are, however, done to explain observations and patterns. It is therefore appropriate to be able to publish quantitative observations to provide the context and basis for studying mechanisms and processes. Ecologists are concerned about very different types of observations. Some areas of study are still totally dependent on observational, descriptive evidence; some depend on mensurative tests of hypotheses about patterns. Tests of hypotheses about patterns are also needed to validate casual or qualitative observations. Guide-lines for what constitutes appropriate or publishable ecological descriptions are discussed here. These recognize the experimental, hypothesis-testing nature of many descriptive studies and consider the relevance of sound logic and experimental design in the planning, collection and interpretation of observations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- AJ Underwood
- Centre for Research on Ecological Impacts of Coastal Cities, Marine Ecology Laboratories All, University of 2006, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Abstract
Urban structures in the form of pontoons and pilings represent major coastal habitats for marine organisms and understanding the factors causing abundances of organisms to differ between these and natural habitat has been neglected in the study of coastal ecology. It has been proposed that composition of substrata explain differences previously described between subtidal assemblages of epibiota on rocky reef (sandstone) and pontoons (concrete) in Sydney Harbour, Australia. This study tested the hypothesis that differences in the composition of substratum (sandstone vs. concrete) independent of type of habitat (rocky reef vs. pontoon) affects the development of epibiotic assemblages. This was tested by experimentally providing substratum of the two types in both habitats. Epibiotic assemblages were unaffected by the composition of substratum but strongly affected by the type of habitat; demonstrating that pontoons constitute novel habitats for epibiota. This result highlights a need for determining how current ecological understanding of subtidal epibiota, which is heavily based on studies of urban structures (pilings and pontoons), relates to natural reef. Future tests of hypotheses about the nature of these differences will not only contribute to better ecological understanding of epibiota and their use of urban structures as habitats, but also to better predictions of future changes to the ecology of coastal habitats.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- SD Connell
- Centre for Research on Ecological Impacts of Coastal Cities, Marine Ecology Laboratories A11, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Abstract
This paper describes the use of a standard stereo-pair image display method for presenting the three-dimensional relief information found in atomic force microscope (AFM) images. The method makes use of commercially available image processing software packages. The techniques are illustrated on AFM images of the cuticle structure of a human hair fibre.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J R Smith
- Scanning Probe Microscopy Laboratory, School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Portsmouth, St. Michael's Building, White Swan Road, Portsmouth PO1 2DT, U.K.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|