An unusual diarrheal outbreak in the community in Eastern Thailand caused by Norovirus GII.3[P25]

BACKGROUND

Sentinel laboratory surveillance for diarrheal disease determined norovirus to be the most common cause of non-bacterial gastroenteritis in people during the COVID-19 pandemic in Thailand. An increase in patients presenting with diarrhea and vomiting in hospitals across Chanthaburi province between December 2021 and January 2022 led to the need for the identification of viral pathogens that may be responsible for the outbreak.

METHODS

Fecal samples (rectal swabs or stool) from 93 patients, of which 65 patients were collected during the December 2021 to January 2022 outbreak, were collected and screened for viral infection by real-time RT-PCR. Positive samples for norovirus GII were then genotyped by targeted amplification and sequencing of partial polymerase and capsid genes. Full genome sequencing was performed from the predominant strain, GII.3[P25].

RESULTS

Norovirus was the most common virus detected in human fecal samples in this study. 39 of 65 outbreak samples (60%) and 3 of 28 (10%) non-outbreak samples were positive for norovirus genogroup II. One was positive for rotavirus, and one indicated co-infection with rotavirus and norovirus genogroups I and II. Nucleotide sequences of VP1 and RdRp gene were successfully obtained from 28 of 39 positive norovirus GII and used for dual-typing; 25/28 (89.3%) were GII.3, and 24/28 (85.7) were GII.P25, respectively. Norovirus GII.3[P25] was the predominant strain responsible for this outbreak. The full genome sequence of norovirus GII.3[P25] from our study is the first reported in Thailand and has 98.62% and 98.57% similarity to norovirus found in China in 2021 and the USA in 2022, respectively. We further demonstrate the presence of multiple co-circulating norovirus genotypes, including GII.21[P21], GII.17[P17], GII.3[P12] and GII.4[P31] in our study.

CONCLUSIONS

An unusual diarrhea outbreak was found in December 2021 in eastern Thailand. Norovirus strain GII.3[P25] was the cause of the outbreak and was first detected in Thailand. The positive rate during GII.3[P25] outbreak was six times higher than sporadic cases (GII.4), and, atypically, adults were the primary infected population rather than children.

High Transmission Rates of Early Omicron Subvariant BA.2 in Bangkok, Thailand

The emergence of Omicron as the fifth variant of concern within the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic in late 2021, characterized by its rapid transmission and distinct spike gene mutations, underscored the pressing need for cost-effective and efficient methods to detect viral variants, especially given their evolving nature. This study sought to address this need by assessing the effectiveness of two SARS-CoV-2 variant classification platforms based on RT-PCR and mass spectrometry. The primary aim was to differentiate between Delta, Omicron BA.1, and Omicron BA.2 variants using 618 COVID-19-positive samples collected from Bangkok patients between November 2011 and March 2022. The analysis revealed that both BA.1 and BA.2 variants exhibited significantly higher transmission rates, up to 2-3 times, when compared to the Delta variant. This research presents a cost-efficient approach to virus surveillance, enabling a quantitative evaluation of variant-specific public health implications, crucial for informing and adapting public health strategies.

SARS-CoV-2 Variants Detection Strategies in Wastewater Samples Collected in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region

Wastewater surveillance is considered a promising approach for COVID-19 surveillance in communities. In this study, we collected wastewater samples between November 2020 and February 2022 from twenty-three sites in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region to detect the presence of SARS-CoV-2 and its variants for comparison to standard clinical sampling. A total of 215 wastewater samples were collected and tested for SARS-CoV-2 RNA by real-time PCR with three targeted genes (N, E, and ORF1ab); 102 samples were positive (42.5%). The SARS-CoV-2 variants were determined by a multiplex PCR MassARRAY assay to distinguish four SARS-CoV-2 variants, including Alpha, Beta, Delta, and Omicron. Multiple variants of Alpha-Delta and Delta-Omicron were detected in the wastewater samples in July 2021 and January 2022, respectively. These wastewater variant results mirrored the country data from clinical specimens deposited in GISAID. Our results demonstrated that wastewater surveillance using multiple signature mutation sites for SARS-CoV-2 variant detection is an appropriate strategy to monitor the presence of SARS-CoV-2 variants in the community at a low cost and with rapid turn-around time. However, it is essential to note that sequencing surveillance of wastewater samples should be considered complementary to whole genome sequencing of clinical samples to detect novel variants.

Simultaneous detection of omicron and other SARS-CoV-2 variants by multiplex PCR MassARRAY technology

The rapid emergence of SARS-CoV-2 variants with high severity and transmutability adds further urgency for rapid and multiplex molecular testing to identify the variants. A nucleotide matrix-assisted laser-desorption-ionization time-of-flight mass spectrophotometry (MALDI-TOF MS)-based assay was developed (called point mutation array, PMA) to identify four major SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern (VOCs) including Alpha, Beta, Delta, and Omicron (namely PMA-ABDO) and differentiate Omicron subvariant (namely PMA-Omicron). PMA-ABDO and PMA-Omicron consist of 24 and 28 mutation sites of the spike gene. Both PMA panels specifically identified VOCs with as low as 10 viral copies/µl. The panel has shown a 100% concordant with the Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) results testing on 256 clinical specimens with real-time PCR cycle threshold (Ct) values less than 26. It showed a higher sensitivity over NGS; 25/28 samples were positive by PMA but not NGS in the clinical samples with PCR Ct higher than 26. Due to the mass of nucleotide used to differentiate between wild-type and mutation strains, the co-infection or recombination of multiple variants can be determined by the PMA method. This method is flexible in adding a new primer set to identify a new emerging mutation site among the current circulating VOCs and the turnaround time is less than 8 h. However, the spike gene sequencing or NGS retains the advantage of detecting newly emerged variants.

Simultaneous Detection of Omicron and Other SARS-CoV-2 Variants by Multiplex PCR MassARRAY Technology

The rapid emergence of SARS-CoV-2 variants with high severity and transmutability adds further urgency for rapid and multiplex molecular testing to identify the variants. A nucleotide matrix-assisted laser-desorption-ionization time-of-flight mass spectrophotometry (MALDI-TOF MS)-based assay was developed (called point mutation array, PMA) to identify four major SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern (VOCs) including Alpha, Beta, Delta, and Omicron (namely PMA-ABDO) and differentiate Omicron subvariant (namely PMA-Omicron). PMA-ABDO and PMA-Omicron consist of 24 and 28 mutation sites of the spike gene. Both PMA panels specifically identified VOCs with as low as 10 viral copies/ µl. The panel has shown a 100% concordant with the Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) results testing on 256 clinical specimens with real-time PCR cycle threshold (Ct) values less than 26. It showed a higher sensitivity over NGS; 25/28 samples were positive by PMA but not NGS in the clinical samples with PCR Ct higher than 26. Due to the mass of nucleotide used to differentiate between wild-type and mutation strains, the co-infection or recombination of multiple variants can be determined by the PMA method. This method is flexible in adding a new primer set to identify a new emerging mutation site among the current circulating VOCs and the turnaround time is less than 8 hours. However, the spike gene sequencing or NGS retains the advantage of detecting newly emerged variants.

Behavioral-biological surveillance of emerging infectious diseases among a dynamic cohort in Thailand

Background

Interactions between humans and animals are the key elements of zoonotic spillover leading to zoonotic disease emergence. Research to understand the high-risk behaviors associated with disease transmission at the human-animal interface is limited, and few consider regional and local contexts.

Objective

This study employed an integrated behavioral–biological surveillance approach for the early detection of novel and known zoonotic viruses in potentially high-risk populations, in an effort to identify risk factors for spillover and to determine potential foci for risk-mitigation measures.

Method

Participants were enrolled at two community-based sites (n = 472) in eastern and western Thailand and two hospital (clinical) sites (n = 206) in northeastern and central Thailand. A behavioral questionnaire was administered to understand participants’ demographics, living conditions, health history, and animal-contact behaviors and attitudes. Biological specimens were tested for coronaviruses, filoviruses, flaviviruses, influenza viruses, and paramyxoviruses using pan (consensus) RNA Virus assays.

Results

Overall 61/678 (9%) of participants tested positive for the viral families screened which included influenza viruses (75%), paramyxoviruses (15%), human coronaviruses (3%), flaviviruses (3%), and enteroviruses (3%). The most salient predictors of reporting unusual symptoms (i.e., any illness or sickness that is not known or recognized in the community or diagnosed by medical providers) in the past year were having other household members who had unusual symptoms and being scratched or bitten by animals in the same year. Many participants reported raising and handling poultry (10.3% and 24.2%), swine (2%, 14.6%), and cattle (4.9%, 7.8%) and several participants also reported eating raw or undercooked meat of these animals (2.2%, 5.5%, 10.3% respectively). Twenty four participants (3.5%) reported handling bats or having bats in the house roof. Gender, age, and livelihood activities were shown to be significantly associated with participants’ interactions with animals. Participants’ knowledge of risks influenced their health-seeking behavior.

Conclusion

The results suggest that there is a high level of interaction between humans, livestock, and wild animals in communities at sites we investigated in Thailand. This study highlights important differences among demographic and occupational risk factors as they relate to animal contact and zoonotic disease risk, which can be used by policymakers and local public health programs to build more effective surveillance strategies and behavior-focused interventions.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12879-022-07439-7.

Use of qRT-PCR for SARS-CoV-2 sgRNA leader for the therapeutic plan: a preliminary report on 10 patients

INTRODUCTION

Duration of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) shedding is important for infection control. The presence of SARS-CoV-2 subgenomic RNA (sgRNA) leader indicates that the virus is replicative. This study examined the shedding duration of SARS-CoV-2 sgRNA leader and genomic RNA (gRNA) in diverse respiratory specimens.

METHODOLOGY

One hundred and eleven respiratory specimens collected sequentially from 10 COVID-19 patients with real-time RT-PCR SARS-CoV-2 orf1ab gene confirmed positive admitted to King Chulalongkorn Memorial Hospital were examined for SARS-CoV-2 E sgRNA leader and E gRNA by using Real-time reverse transcription PCR (qRT-PCR). These specimens included nasopharyngeal swab and throat swabs, nasal swab and throat swabs, sputum, and endotracheal aspirate, and were collected from the first day of admission until the time of orf1ab real-time RT-PCR negative of at least 2-4 consecutive days.

RESULTS

E sgRNA leader could only be detectable in specimens with ≥ 1E+05 virus E gene copies per ml within the first 15 days after hospitalization. SARS-CoV-2 sgRNA leader was undetectable from one to 15 days earlier than that of gRNA in all patients. Re-shedding of sgRNA was evident in 2 cases, both on a single occasion after being undetectable for 3-10 days.

CONCLUSIONS

Assessment of the presence of sgRNA leader may be useful for therapeutic planning.

Genetic variations from successive whole genome sequencing during COVID-19 treatment in five individuals

We report multiple single nucleotide polymorphism taken at different time interval during treatment of COVID-19. Gene sequencing showed mutation within ORF1b at position P314L. Mutation at this point has been shown to impose structural remodelling that increases the affinity for remdesivir binding and may also affect binding affinity for favipiravir.

A new cluster of rhabdovirus detected in field-caught sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae: Phlebotominae) collected from southern Thailand

BACKGROUND

The distribution of phlebotomine sand flies is changing rapidly due to climate change. This issue has implications for the epidemiology of sand fly-borne diseases, especially sand fly-associated viruses. Few studies concerning sand fly-associated viruses have been conducted in Thailand. Therefore, this study aimed to perform a molecular survey of groups of pathogenic RNA viruses belonging to the Orbivirus, Phlebovirus, and Flavivirus genera and family Rhabdoviridae in sand fly samples collected from southern Thailand.

METHODS

Sand flies were collected at two locations in Trang and Songkhla provinces of southern Thailand, and individual sand fly samples were processed for species identification and virus detection. The Orbivirus, Phlebovirus, and Flavivirus genera and family Rhabdoviridae molecular determination was performed by RT-PCR, and positive samples were identified by cloning and sequencing, cell culture inoculation, and phylogenetic analysis.

RESULTS

The results presented in this study were based on the analysis of a total of 331 female sand flies. This molecular study revealed evidence of Rhabdoviridae family virus presence in Phlebotomus papatasi (3/331, 0.9%). The findings demonstrated a new cluster of rhabdovirus that was closely related to Bactrocera dorsalis sigmavirus strain BDSV.abc5 and the lineages of insect-specific Rhabdoviridae. In addition, the Bayesian tree suggested that the common ancestor of this group was the dimarhabdovirus clade. It was assumed that the virus may have switched hosts during its evolution. However, the detection of Orbivirus, Phlebovirus, and Flavivirus genera using specific primers for RT-PCR was negative in the collected sand flies.

CONCLUSIONS

There is limited knowledge on the genetic diversity and ecology of Rhabdoviridae in Thailand. This is the first data regarding the circulation of Rhabdoviridae in Ph. papatasi from Thailand. We found a new cluster of rhabdoviruses that was close to the new B. dorsalis sigmavirus. It is possible that there is a great deal of diversity in this family yet to be discovered, and a more extensive survey for new rhabdoviruses may uncover viruses from a wide diversity of host taxa and broaden our understanding of the relationships among the Rhabdoviridae.

Two decades of one health surveillance of Nipah virus in Thailand

BACKGROUND

Nipah virus (NiV) infection causes encephalitis and has > 75% mortality rate, making it a WHO priority pathogen due to its pandemic potential. There have been NiV outbreak(s) in Malaysia, India, Bangladesh, and southern Philippines. NiV naturally circulates among fruit bats of the genus Pteropus and has been detected widely across Southeast and South Asia. Both Malaysian and Bangladeshi NiV strains have been found in fruit bats in Thailand. This study summarizes 20 years of pre-emptive One Health surveillance of NiV in Thailand, including triangulated surveillance of bats, and humans and pigs in the vicinity of roosts inhabited by NiV-infected bats.

METHODS

Samples were collected periodically and tested for NiV from bats, pigs and healthy human volunteers from Wat Luang village, Chonburi province, home to the biggest P. lylei roosts in Thailand, and other provinces since 2001. Archived cerebrospinal fluid specimens from encephalitis patients between 2001 and 2012 were also tested for NiV. NiV RNA was detected using nested reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). NiV antibodies were detected using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay or multiplex microsphere immunoassay.

RESULTS

NiV RNA (mainly Bangladesh strain) was detected every year in fruit bats by RT-PCR from 2002 to 2020. The whole genome sequence of NiV directly sequenced from bat urine in 2017 shared 99.17% identity to NiV from a Bangladeshi patient in 2004. No NiV-specific IgG antibodies or RNA have been found in healthy volunteers, encephalitis patients, or pigs to date. During the sample collection trips, 100 community members were trained on how to live safely with bats.

CONCLUSIONS

High identity shared between the NiV genome from Thai bats and the Bangladeshi patient highlights the outbreak potential of NiV in Thailand. Results from NiV cross-sectoral surveillance were conveyed to national authorities and villagers which led to preventive control measures, increased surveillance of pigs and humans in vicinity of known NiV-infected roosts, and increased vigilance and reduced risk behaviors at the community level. This proactive One Health approach to NiV surveillance is a success story; that increased collaboration between the human, animal, and wildlife sectors is imperative to staying ahead of a zoonotic disease outbreak.

Multiple clades of SARS-CoV-2 were introduced to Thailand during the first quarter of 2020

In early January 2020, Thailand became the first country where a coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) patient was identified outside China. In this study, 23 whole genomes of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2) from patients who were hospitalized from January to March 2020 were analyzed, along with their travel histories. Six lineages were identified including A, A.6, B, B.1, B.1.8, and B.58, among which lineage A.6 was dominant. Seven patients were from China who traveled to Thailand in January and early February. Five of them were infected with the B lineage virus, and the other two cases were infected with different lineages including A and A.6. These findings present clear evidence of the early introduction of diverse SARS‐CoV‐2 clades in Thailand.

Detection of Changuinola virus (Reoviridae: Orbivirus) in field-caught sand flies in southern Thailand

BACKGROUND

Phlebotomine sand flies are vectors for several pathogenic bacteria, parasites and viruses that have significant impacts on public health. Sand fly-associated viruses that cause diseases in humans and animals have recently received more attention. This study aimed to detect pathogenic viruses belonging to the Orbivirus genus, Phlebovirus genus, Flavivirus genus and family Rhabdoviridae in several field-caught sand fly species in southern Thailand.

METHODS

Sand flies were collected in southern Thailand using CDC light traps. Each sample was processed individually for virus screening using RT-PCR and sequencing.

RESULTS

Seven out of 60 sand fly samples (two samples of Idiophlebotomus spp., three of Phlebotomus papatasi and two of Sergentomyia khawi) were positive for the Orbivirus genus, which is closely related to Changuinola virus (CGLV). Phlebovirus genus, Flavivirus genus and family Rhabdoviridae were negative in all samples.

CONCLUSIONS

CGLV causes Changuinola virus disease or Changuinola fever, a febrile illness in Central and South America. The virus has never been reported in Thailand. This study is the first report of the detection of CGLV in sand flies from Thailand. An extensive study of sand flies from other regions of the country and the associations between sand flies, viruses and vertebrate hosts in Thailand should be undertaken.

Lack of Transmission of Zika Virus Infection to Breastfed Infant

Zika virus (ZIKV) continues to affect certain parts of the World. Here we report a case that supports breastfeeding regardless of mother ZIKV status by providing clinical and virological studies.

Imported case of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) infection from Oman to Thailand, June 2015

Thailand reported the first Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) case on 18 June 2015 (day 4) in an Omani patient with heart condition who was diagnosed with pneumonia on hospital admission on 15 June 2015 (day 1). Two false negative RT-PCR on upper respiratory tract samples on days 2 and 3 led to a 48-hour diagnosis delay and a decision to transfer the patient out of the negative pressure unit (NPU). Subsequent examination of sputum later on day 3 confirmed MERS coronavirus (MERS-CoV) infection. The patient was immediately moved back into the NPU and then transferred to Bamrasnaradura Infectious Disease Institute. Over 170 contacts were traced; 48 were quarantined and 122 self-monitored for symptoms. High-risk close contacts exhibiting no symptoms, and whose laboratory testing on the 12th day after exposure was negative, were released on the 14th day. The Omani Ministry of Health (MOH) was immediately notified using the International Health Regulation (IHR) mechanism. Outbreak investigation was conducted in Oman, and was both published on the World Health Organization (WHO) intranet and shared with Thailand's IHR focal point. The key to successful infection control, with no secondary transmission, were the collaborative efforts among hospitals, laboratories and MOHs of both countries.

Longitudinal study of age-specific pattern of coronavirus infection in Lyle's flying fox (Pteropus lylei) in Thailand

Background

Bats are natural reservoirs for several highly pathogenic and novel viruses including coronaviruses (CoVs) (mainly Alphacoronavirus and Betacoronavirus). Lyle’s flying fox (Pteropus lylei)‘s roosts and foraging sites are usually in the proximity to humans and animals. Knowledge about age-specific pattern of CoV infection in P. lylei, prevalence, and viral shedding at roosts and foraging sites may have an impact on infection-age-structure model to control CoV outbreak.

Methods

P. lylei bats were captured monthly during January–December 2012 for detection of CoV at three areas in Chonburi province; two human dwellings, S1 and S2, where few fruit trees were located with an open pig farm, 0.6 km and 5.5 km away from the bat roost, S3. Nested RT-PCR of RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) gene from rectal swabs was used for CoV detection. The strain of CoV was confirmed by sequencing and phylogenetic analysis.

Results

CoV infection was found in both juveniles and adult bats between May and October (January, in adults only and April, in juveniles only). Of total rectal swab positives (68/367, 18.5%), ratio was higher in bats captured at S1 (11/44, 25.0%) and S2 (35/99, 35.4%) foraging sites than at roost (S3) (22/224, 9.8%). Juveniles (forearm length ≤ 136 mm) were found with more CoV infection than adults at all three sites; S1 (9/24, 37.5% vs 2/20, 10%), S2 (22/49, 44.9% vs 13/50, 26.0%), and S3 (10/30, 33.3% vs 12/194, 6.2%). The average BCI of CoV infected bats was significantly lower than uninfected bats. No gender difference related to infection was found at the sites. Phylogenetic analysis of conserved RdRp gene revealed that the detected CoVs belonged to group D betacoronavirus (n = 64) and alphacoronavirus (n = 4).

Conclusions

The fact that CoV infection and shedding was found in more juvenile than adult bats may suggest transmission from mother during peripartum period. Whether viral reactivation during parturition period or stress is responsible in maintaining transmission in the bat colony needs to be explored.

Infectious Causes and Infectious Mimics of Acute Encephalitis: a Prospective Study from Thailand

Background

Previous reports of infectious encephalitis in Thailand showed viruses as major pathogens similar to worldwide data. Major viruses in studies varied among Japanese encephalitis, Enteroviruses and Herpesviruses. Infectious etiologies vary by regions, seasons and preventive strategies done. Dynamic change of pathogen is believed to occur continually. Local data in each region is important to develop an algorithm of investigations for the cost-effectiveness.

Methods

This is a prospective study of patients with encephalitis between January 2014 to March 2017 at a tertiary hospital in Bangkok. Microbiological and serological studies were done according to an algorithm based on initial cerebrospinal fluid analysis. Initial tests were for bacteria, fungus, mycobacterium and commonly prevalent viruses. Further tests for infectious etiology were done by stepwise approach if initial tests yielded negative.

Results

Fifty-two patients were enrolled. Twenty-seven (51.9%) patients had no etiology identified. Three patients (5.8%) had bacterial etiology, 10 (19.2%) had viral etiology, and 12 (23%) had immune-mediated encephalitis. Among viral etiologies, VZV was identified in 4 cases, HSV in 3 cases, CMV in 2 cases and measles in 1 case. Baseline characteristic of HIV infection or skin rash was associated with viral infection (p 0.031, p 0.006). Patients with VZV encephalitis might not have active skin lesion. The presence of prodrome, duration of prodrome, neurological onset to peak and physical examination of focal neurodeficit, meningeal irritation signs, and reflex were similar across all etiologies. White blood cell [mean 7.0 (range 0–30) cells/µL] and protein [mean 32.5 (range 11–70.4) mg/dL] from the cerebrospinal fluid of noninfectious etiologies tended to be lower than the levels of infectious causes (p 0.009, p 0.020). All patients survived at 7 days after admission.

Conclusion

A quarter of patients presenting with acute encephalitis in this study had autoimmune and paraneoplastic encephalitis. Infections caused by herpesviruses was the most prevalent viral etiology. Autoimmune and paraneoplastic encephalitis should be kept in the differential diagnosis in patients with acute encephalitis.

Disclosures

S. Wacharapluesadee, USAID: Investigator, Research grant. O. Putcharoen, USAID: Grant Investigator, Research grant.

Normocellular CSF in herpes simplex encephalitis

Background

Herpes simplex virus (HSV) is the most common cause of sporadic encephalitis worldwide. The high mortality rate (70–80 %) of herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) can be reduced to 20–30 % by antiviral therapy. However, normocellular CSF can lure physicians to look for non-infectious causes, resulting in delayed treatment. This study aimed to investigate, characterize and differentiate HSE patients, with normocellular and pleocytosis CSF, according to neuroimaging patterns, underlying disease, CSF viral load and clinical outcome. Patients with proven (by PCR positive CSF) or presumed viral infections of the CNS admitted to King Chulalongkorn Memorial Hospital between January 2002 and 2011 were analyzed.

Results

HSV was detected in the CSF of 43 patients but only 23 patients had encephalitis. Among these 23 patients, 6 cases (26.1 %) had normal CSF WBC (<5 cells/mm³). One patient in this normocellular CSF group had HIV infection. Although this patient had low CD4 counts (<200 cells/mm³), the peripheral WBC counts showed only mild leukopenia. The CSF HSV viral load in the pleocytosis group was higher than the normocellular group, with an average of 12,200 vs 3027 copies/ml respectively. There was no correlation between the viral load and the clinical outcome. With respect to neuroimaging, 4 (66.7 %) patients in the normocellular group had unremarkable/non-specific results.

Conclusions

Normocellular CSF in HSE is not rare, and can be seen in normal as well as immunocompromised hosts. Clinicians should not exclude CNS infection, especially HSE, merely based on the absence of CSF pleocytosis and/or unremarkable neuroimaging study.

Population-based study of Streptococcus suis infection in humans in Phayao Province in northern Thailand

BACKGROUND

Streptococcus suis infection in humans has received increasing worldwide recognition.

METHODS AND FINDINGS

A prospective study of S. suis infection in humans was conducted in Phayao Province in northern Thailand to determine the incidence and the risk behaviors of the disease in this region in 2010. Thirty-one cases were confirmed. The case fatality rate was 16.1%, and the estimated incidence rate was 6.2 per 100,000 in the general population. The peak incidence occurred in May. The median age of the patients was 53 years and 64.5% were men. Consumption of raw pork products was confirmed in 22 cases and the median incubation period (range) was 2 days (0-11) after consumption of raw pork products. Isolates from 31 patients were confirmed as serotype 2 in 23 patients (74.2%) and serotype 14 in eight patients (25.8%). The major sequence types (STs) were ST1 (n = 20) for serotype 2 and ST105 (n = 8) for serotype 14. The epidemiological analysis suggested three possible clusters, which included 17 cases. In the largest possible cluster of 10 cases in Chiang Kham and its neighboring districts in May, the source of infection in four cases was identified as a raw pork dish served at the same restaurant in this district. Microbiological analysis confirmed that three of four cases associated with consumption of raw pork at this restaurant were attributable to an identical strain of serotype 2 with ST1 and pulsotype A2.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggest a high incidence rate of S. suis infection in the general population in Phayao Province in 2010 and confirm a cluster of three cases in 31 human cases. Food safety control should be strengthened especially for raw pork products in northern Thailand.