[Gaston Ramon and concise history of anatoxins (to the centenary of discovery)]

The article analyzes past history, main milestones of making, research and improvement of anatoxins from works of Gaston Ramon who first proposed 100 years ago method of obtaining reliable vaccine preparation (anatoxin) on the basis of formalin neutralized diphtheria (and then tetanus) toxin (1922-1923) to nowadays scientific achievements in prevention and treatment of these infectious diseases.

Gaston Ramon (to Centenary of the discovery of anatoxins)

In the history of science, there are great scientists who, without being physicians, wrote golden pages in the History of Medicine. Such was Louis Pasteur, founder of scientific microbiology and immunology. Such was his follower Gaston Ramon (1886-1963), French veterinarian and immunologist who created 100 years ago first anatoxin for active prevention of diphtheria and later tetanus and thus opened era of anatoxins (toxoids) - vaccines based on toxin molecule devoid of toxic properties, but preserving immunogenicity and antigenic specificity. For many centuries, diphtheria (originally known as 'croup') was incurable contagious disease, especially among children. In XIX century, it affected in France up to 30,000 people per year and killed every second infected child. In 1888, at the Pasteur Institute (Paris), Emile Roux (1853-1933) and Alexandre Yersin (1863-1943) demonstrated for first time that symptoms of diphtheria are caused not by bacteria themselves, but by deadly toxin released by them. The long-term search for method of treatment and prevention of diphtheria did not bring the desired result. It will take many years, before Gaston Ramon in 1923 will be able to neutralize diphtheria toxin by acting on it with formalin at certain temperature and thus will receive "anatoxin", mean of vaccination against diphtheria. The article analyzes stages of these studies, which proved high effectiveness of anatoxin and proceeded with widespread implementation of vaccination against diphtheria and later tetanus in short time in France and in Russia (with active participation of Pavel F. Zdrodovsky, 1890-1976). The separate section of the article is devoted to life story of Gaston Ramon and his activities in the Pasteur Institute. The scientist who opened the era of anatoxins did not become Nobel Prize winner, despite the fact that various organizations and scientists from many countries of the world have nominated him 155 times for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in different years. He received recognition in France, his Motherland: Gaston Ramon is holder of the Grand Cross of the Order of the Legion of Honor and streets, colleges, lyceums, schools are named after him.

[The Becoming and Development of the Scientific School of Physiology of Kidneys and Water-Salt Metabolism in Novosibirsk]

The article considers analysis of stages of becoming and development of scientific school of physiology of kidneys and water-salt metabolism in at the chair of normal physiology of the Novosibirsk State Medical Institute (University) being one of branches of prominent physiological school of I. P. Pavlov-L. A. Orbeli-A. G. Ginetsinsky and his disciples. An original periodization of its history (precondition, becoming, development and concluding periods) is proposed. The fundamental role of professor A.G. Ginetsinsky in becoming of the given physiological school and its further development under the guidance of professor Ya.D. Finkinshtein are established. The key directions of activities of this scientific school such as links of reflex mechanisms of osmoregulation; the ontogenic features of osmoregulatory mechanisms, role of hypothalamic-pituitary system hormones in maintenance of water-electrolyte homeostasis, osmoregulatory reflexes at various pathophysiological processes, regulation of micro-circulatory processes of formation of cerebro-spinal liquid, development of conceptions of reflex regulation of ionic homeostasis are established and analyzed. The study demonstrated that the given physiological school fully conforms to criteria of scientific school (availability of leader, intergenerational continuity, unity of problematics, duration of existence in time and space, recognition of input into science by disciplinary scientific community).

[The federal state educational standard and teaching of history of medicine]

The article considers actual issues of teaching of history of medicine in Russia in connection with transition of higher medical school of Russia to the new Federal state educational standard of high education if the third generation meaning placement of discipline in education process, programs of training, personnel support.

[THE BOLOGNA PROCESS AND THE FEDERAL STATE EDUCATIONAL STANDARD OF HIGH EDUCATION]

The article reveals characteristics of entering of high medical school of Russia in the Bologna process. The Russian Federation joined this process in 2003. The features of implementation of the new Federal state educational standard of high education of the third generation in area of training "Health care and medical sciences".

[Evgeniy Mikhaiylovotch Tareyev as founder of Russian nephrology]

The article follows continuity of becoming and development of nephrology in Europe and Russia. The role of Evgeniy Mikhaiylovotch Tareyev (1895-1986) is revealed as a founder of nephrology in second part of XX century. In our country nephrology is considered as an independent scientific discipline. E.M. Tareyev developed prominent scientific clinical school accepted in Russia and abroad.

[The traditional Ayurvedic medicine about pseudo-doctoring as exemplified by "Charaka Samhita"]

The article considers the findings about pseudo-doctoring represented in one of the most ancient medical sources on our planet--treatise "Charaka Samhita" (Carakasamhitā). This treatise is the most important text of Ayurveda, a traditional medical system developed in the Hindustan sub-continent during millenniums.

[The gladiators of the Ancient Rome: social status and medical care]

The article considers issues of history of fights of gladiators in relation with life and daily shores of gladiators of the Ancient Rome, their medical care and their status in society and customs.

[The stages of development of Ayurvedic medicine]

The Ayurveda medicine as one the three traditional systems of healing developed during millennia at the Hindustan subcontinent (the ancient India). Nowadays, Ayurveda medicine is widely used in many countries. The present day researchers mark out and analyze several periods in its history.

[Nikolaĭ Ivanovich Pirogov in British historical and medical literature]

The article gives evidence to the actual conceptions of the British historical medical literature about the input of N. I. Pirogov into world science.

[The fiftieth anniversary of the Russian Peoples Friendship University (on the history the faculty of medicine)]

The article presents the history of the Russian Peoples Friendship University and of the faculty of medicine in particular from the moment of its organization to nowadays.

[Nursing staff education in Brunei]

The only form of medical education in Brunei was nurse staff training until Institute of Medicine of University Brunei Darussalam was established in September 2000. In Brunei, nurse education was organized in 1951 when first group of students in School of Nursing was formed. In 1953 they received certificate of Trained Assistant Nurse. In 1954 more elaborated program of nurse training was introduced. Until 1986, in School of Nursing two levels of educational programs were used--General Nurse Training and Assistant Nurse Training. In 1986, College of Nursing was set up for training higher education nurses. In 1991 first graduates of college of nursing received diplomas of nursing. In 1999 School of Nursing was unified with College of Nursing which became the only educational institution for nurse training. Organizational structure and educational staff of College of Nursing, conditions of entering and diploma issues, curriculum and education courses, post-graduate training and international cooperation are discussed.

[Credits and rating system in teaching of history of medicine]

Implementation of system of credits and score-rating of students' knowledge at the medical faculty of Peoples' Friendship University of Russia is considered. Estimation of maximum possible rating for each discipline is conventionally based on mode of "one credit--36 study hours of student--36 scores". System of numerical score elaborated at Course of history of medicine considers attendance of lectures and studies, activity of student during study hours and self-instruction (term papers included), contribution of student into chair research, interim testing and test passing. Total score of discipline determines rating of student for study class, university year and faculty. Tables of score estimation, its relationship with conventional system of scores are discussed. Examples of evaluation of student's knowledge using score-rating system are presented.

Russian nursing in the Crimean war

Although the practice of military medicine and surgery goes back to antiquity, the British date the proper care of the wounded from the arrival of Florence Nightingale at Scutari in Turkey on 4 November 1854. The 140th anniversary of her work in that winter of the Crimean war is being celebrated by an exhibition at the Florence Nightingale Museum, 2 Lambeth Palace Road SE1 7EW, from 1 December 1994 till 30 April 1995. For the first time in this country it will tell a little of the other side of the story--the exploits of Russian nurses in caring for the casualties from both sides in the conflict--which is the subject of this article.