On the earliest descriptions of the uremic syndrome in medical literature

Uremic syndrome refers to the clinical manifestations of renal failure (acute or chronic) that results from the accumulation of several endogenous toxins normally excreted by the kidneys and can be fatal unless the primary cause is addressed and the toxins removed by dialysis. A historical description of the syndrome is traditionally believed to start in the 18th - 19th century through seminal works in the field of experimental medicine. This account, however, ignores the possibility of clinical apperception of this syndrome in ancient medical literatures. The Sushruta Samhita (SS), a Sanskrit text whose authorship is attributed to the legendary ancient Indian surgeon Sushruta (6th century BC), is well known for its pioneering descriptions of several surgical procedures, even though its contribution to the fields of internal medicine and especially nephrology is detailed. Prameha, a term that first appears in the SS, and subsequently in later historical Ayurvedic (traditional Indian medicine) texts, denotes a multi-systemic disease syndrome impacting the neurological, cardiac, dermatological, and gastrointestinal systems that is recognized through its intimate association with urinary abnormalities such as hematuria, frothy urine, or glycosuria. This construct is highly consistent with uremic syndrome originating from multiple renal disease processes such as acute glomerulonephritis, nephrotic syndrome, diabetes mellitus, etc. Furthermore, medical treatment of prameha, as detailed in the original text, reflects several recently validated approaches to managing chronic kidney disease, supporting the hypothesis that this historical entity may be one of the earliest descriptions of uremic syndrome in medical history.

Do Ayurveda students need a course in Medical Astrology?

Ayurveda is based largely upon two classics - Charaka-Samhita, representing the school of medicine, and Sushruta-Samhita representing that of surgery. These two texts mark the historic switch in the Indian medical tradition, from faith-based therapeutics to its reason-based variant [1]. The Charaka-Samhita, which acquired its present form in circa 1st century CE, uses two remarkable terms to designate the distinctness of these approaches: daiva-vyapashraya (literally, dependence on the unobservable) and yukti-vyapashraya (dependence on reason) [2].

[The "jīvanīya class of herbs" (Shi Tian Yao) in the Bower Manuscript (Bao Wei Er Xie Ben)]

The Bower Manuscript (Bao Wei Er Xie Ben) is a Sanskrit document unearthed in Xinjiang in the 19th century. The ten drugs, which tasted sweet, and used widely were named as the "jīvanīya class of herbs" (Shi Tian Yao) in this document . It was found that "jīvanīya" tasted sweet, felt cold and was often used in tonic decoction for relieving serious vāta (Feng), with references to the ancient medical book Ayurveda and the modern Ayurvedic pharmacopoeia. "Jīvanīya" was constructed with different dossage forms, such as butter, oil, enema, ointment. It can treat some diseases of consumption of the lungs, epilepsy, consumptive diseases and fever of children in Bower Manuscript (Bao Wei Er Xie Ben). The theories of "jīvanīya" came from Ayurveda. Compared with the theories of traditional Chinese Medicine, the theory that "jīvanīya" can treat consumptive diseases appears similar to the theories in Su Wen about "Feng Xiao". The theories of Traditional Indian medicine and Chinese medicine appear resemblant, such as the commonalities in terms of using sweet tonics with liquorice and Fritillaria cirrhosa to treat comsumptive diseases.

Akarnan: The Stethoscope and Making of Modern Ayurveda, Bengal, c. 1894-1952

The histories of modern medical technologies have largely been studied exclusively within the biomedical context. Yet historians of medicine have increasingly demonstrated that a number of non-biomedical therapeutic traditions-Ayurvedic and Chinese medicine to name only two-have attained their own distinctive modernity. How has the incorporation of various medical technologies affected these neo-traditional medicines? What is the relationship between technologies and the body knowledge in non-biomedical therapeutics? Do shared technologies such as the stethoscope reveal the same bodily facts in biomedical and Ayurvedic contexts? These are some of the questions explored in this article by focusing on the uptake of the stethoscope in modern Ayurvedic medicine in Bengal. In the process the article also describes the emergence of a new sonic body in modern Ayurveda.

Ancient Indian concepts about phenomenology, biology, and therapeutics of epilepsy

This article discusses etiology, pathogenesis, symptoms, and treatment of epilepsy, as described in Charaka Samhitā (translation: Charaka's Compendium) and Sushruta Samhitā, the two core texts of Ayurveda, an ancient system of medicine. Ayurveda emphasized amnesia and loss of consciousness as core features of epileptic seizures (Sanskrit: apasmar; translation: apa negation, smaran memory) and recognized that seizures occur due to a disturbance in brain function or flow of "humors" to the brain. Semiology of various seizure types was well described. Epilepsy was attributed to both internal and multiple exogenous factors. Treatment of epilepsy with formulations of naturally occurring substances, their compounding and use, is described in remarkable detail. Lifestyle modifications to protect people with epilepsy are also documented. Cognitive comorbidities of epilepsy were recognized. Although none of the Ayurveda formulations have any empirical evidence supporting their safety or efficacy in the treatment of epilepsy, studies are needed to generate relevant evidence, to recognize their hazards, and to integrate traditional and complementary systems of medicine with modern health care in an informed and safe manner.

Between the Bazaar and the Bench: Making of the Drugs Trade in Colonial India, ca. 1900-1930

This article analyzes why adulteration became a key trope of the Indian drug market. Adulteration had a pervasive presence, being present in medical discourses, public opinion and debate, and the nationalist claim for government intervention. The article first situates the roots of adulteration in the composite nature of this market, which involved the availability of drugs of different potencies as well as the presence of multiple layers of manufacturers, agents, and distributors. It then shows that such a market witnessed the availability of drugs of diverse potency and strengths, which were understood as elements of adulteration in contemporary medical and official discourse. Although contemporary critics argued that the lack of government legislation and control allowed adulteration to sustain itself, this article establishes that the culture of the dispensation of drugs in India necessarily involved a multitude of manufacturer-retailers, bazaar traders, and medical professionals practicing a range of therapies.

[Textual research on relationship between traditional Chinese medicine and medical prescriptions in the Sanskrit formulary Bower Manuscript excavated in Xinjiang]

This paper introduces the Bower Manuscript in Sanskrit written on birch bark excavated in Xinjiang, which was bought in Kuqa by a British India army lieutenant Bower, hence its title. Then, it was researched, annotated, and published in 7 volumes by a German British lieutenant and orientalist Honer. The first three volumes are devoted to medical prescriptions. It is first verified that its "Dazi Xiangye San" is the "Dujuan Dachen San" in Tibetan medicine. By comparing it with other traditional medical systems, such as Chinese, Tibetan, Mongolian, and Uyghur medical systems, we found that Bower Manuscript is closer to Tibetan medicine and Mongolian medicine, while it has less relation with Chinese medicine and Uyghur medicine. However, it also exerts some influence on TCM.

Psychological symptoms and medical responses in nineteenth-century India

The article documents medical approaches to mental illness in mid- to late-nineteenth-century India through examining the Indian Medical Gazette and other medical accounts. By the late nineteenth century, psychiatry in Europe moved from discussions around asylum-based care to a nuanced and informed debate about the nature of mental symptoms. This included ideas on phrenology and craniometry, biological and psycho-social causes, physical and drug treatments, many of which travelled to India. Simultaneously, indigenous socio-medical ideas were being debated. From the early to the mid-nineteenth century, not much distinction was made between the Western and the native 'mind', and consequently the diagnosis and investigation of mental symptoms did not differ. However, by the late nineteenth century Western medicine considered the 'Western mind' as more civilized and sophisticated than the 'native mind.

Compromised: making institutions and indigenous medicine in Mysore State, circa 1908-1940

This is a study of the emergence of new institutional arenas for ayurveda and yunani medicine, collectivized at the time as 'indigenous medicine,' in a semi-autonomous State (Mysore) in late colonial India. The study argues that the characteristic dimensions of this process were compromise and misalignment between ideals of governance and modes of pedagogy and practice. Running counter to a narrative that the Princely States such as Mysore were instrumental for the 'preservation' of ayurveda, this study analyzes the process of negotiation and struggle between a variety of actors engaged with shaping the direction of institutionalized 'indigenous medicine'. In examining the entanglements over the priorities of the state administration and the conflicting desires and ideals of protagonists, the study problematizes the idea of studying the encounter between the 'state' and 'indigenous medicine,' in order rather to highlight their co-production and the tensions which were generated in the process. While institution-making for ayurveda and yunani in Mysore State assumed distinctive translocal forms, themes of divergence that were unresolved during the time of this study, over the role of the state, the politics of validation, appropriate curricula and pedagogy, and their relation to practice and employment, continue to inform the trajectories of state-directed health provision through 'indigenous medicine' on larger scales [India, health-care, ayurveda, yunani, education].

Soma, food of the immortals according to the Bower Manuscript (Kashmir, 6th century A.D.)

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Food is medicine and vice versa. In Hindu and Ayurvedic medicine, and among human cultures of the Indian subcontinent in general, the perception of the food-medicine continuum is especially well established. The preparation of the exhilarating, gold-coloured Soma, Amrita or Ambrosia, the elixir and food of the 'immortals'-the Hindu pantheon-by the ancient Indo-Aryans, is described in the Rigveda in poetic hymns. Different theories regarding the botanical identity of Soma circulate, but no pharmacologically and historically convincing theory exists to date. We intend to contribute to the botanical, chemical and pharmacological characterisation of Soma through an analysis of two historical Amrita recipes recorded in the Bower Manuscript. The recipes are referred therein as panaceas (clarified butter) and also as a medicine to treat nervous diseases (oil), while no exhilarating properties are mentioned. Notwithstanding this, we hypothesise, that these recipes are related to the ca. 1800 years older Rigvedic Soma. We suppose that the psychoactive Soma ingredient(s) are among the components, possibly in smaller proportions, of the Amrita recipes preserved in the Bower Manuscript.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The Bower Manuscript is a medical treatise recorded in the 6th century A.D. in Sanskrit on birch bark leaves, probably by Buddhist monks, and unearthed towards the end of the 19th century in Chinese Turkestan. We analysed two Amrita recipes from the Bower Manuscript, which was translated by Rudolf Hoernle into English during the early 20th century. A database search with the updated Latin binomials of the herbal ingredients was used to gather quantitative phytochemical and pharmacological information.

RESULTS

Together, both Amrita recipes contain around 100 herbal ingredients. Psychoactive alkaloid containing species still important in Ayurvedic, Chinese and Thai medicine and mentioned in the recipe for 'Amrita-Prâsa clarified butter' and 'Amrita Oil' are: Tinospora cordifolia (Amrita, Guduchi), three Sida spp., Mucuna pruriens, Nelumbo nucifera, Desmodium gangeticum, and Tabernaemontana divaricata. These species contain several notorious and potential psychoactive and psychedelic alkaloids, namely: tryptamines, 2-phenylethylamine, ephedrine, aporphines, ibogaine, and L-DOPA. Furthermore, protoberberine alkaloids, tetrahydro-β-carbolines, and tetrahydroisoquinolines with monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAO-I) activity but also neurotoxic properties are reported.

CONCLUSIONS

We propose that Soma was a combination of a protoberberine alkaloids containing Tinospora cordifolia juice with MAO-I properties mixed together with a tryptamine rich Desmodium gangeticum extract or a blending of Tinospora cordifolia with an ephedrine and phenylethylamine-rich Sida spp. extract. Tinospora cordifolia combined with Desmodium gangeticum might provide a psychedelic experience with visual effects, while a combination of Tinospora cordifolia with Sida spp. might lead to more euphoric and amphetamine-like experiences.

[The traditional Ayurvedic medicine about pseudo-doctoring as exemplified by "Charaka Samhita"]

The article considers the findings about pseudo-doctoring represented in one of the most ancient medical sources on our planet--treatise "Charaka Samhita" (Carakasamhitā). This treatise is the most important text of Ayurveda, a traditional medical system developed in the Hindustan sub-continent during millenniums.

Neem (Azadirachta indica): prehistory to contemporary medicinal uses to humankind

The divine tree neem (Azadirachta indica) is mainly cultivated in the Indian subcontinent. Neem has been used extensively by humankind to treat various ailments before the availability of written records which recorded the beginning of history. The world health organization estimates that 80% of the population living in the developing countries relies exclusively on traditional medicine for their primary health care. More than half of the world's population still relies entirely on plants for medicines, and plants supply the active ingredients of most traditional medical products. The review shows the neem has been used by humankind to treat various ailments from prehistory to contemporary.

Science of exercise: ancient Indian origin

BACKGROUND

Many western literature on ancient exercise science were available. Unfortunately ancient Indian contribution in this area was ignored.

AIM

The aim of this approach was to search ancient Indian literature on science of exercise.

METHOD

The researcher reviewed thoroughly complete Caraka Samhita (nearly ten thousand prose and verse) and the outcome was first time reported in this paper.

RESULT

More than one hundred and twenty slokes (aphorism) on exercise (vyayama) were discovered from Caraka Samhita. Oldest definition of exercise was found from Caraka Samhita, which was percolated from the world's oldest record of medicine practice. Caraka Samhita has been divided into eight section and it was observed that in each section vyayama (exercise) was specially referred whenever needed. The good effect, bad effect, contraindication and feature of correct exercise were mentioned in Caraka Samhita. The season and time of vyayama has also been mentioned. Caraka Samhita,also the world's oldest living evidence of exercise therapy literature prescribed twenty types of kaphaja (phlegm) diseases and many other diseases (obesity and diabetes etc.) can be cured or minimize the consequences through vyayama. According to Caraka Samhita, human is the combination of the body, mind and soul. This Samhita clearly suggested vyayama (exercise) for the body and yoga for mind and soul.

CONCLUSION

From the ancient time India was familiar with the science of exercise and its beneficial effect. It was forgotten due to local ignorance and western influence. The contribution of Caraka Samhita and other ancient Indian literature on the science of exercise should be incorporated in all the appropriate places as early as possible.

Plastic surgery in 17th century Europe. case study: Nicolae Milescu, the snub-nosed

The rising and the existence of plastic and aesthetic surgery in early modern Europe did not have a specific pattern, but was completely different from one nation to another. Colleges of Physicians could only be found in some places in Europe; different Parliaments of Europe's nations did not always elevate being a surgeon to the dignity of a profession, and being a surgeon did not always come with corporate and municipal privileges, or with attractive stipends. Conversely, corporal punishments for treacherous surgeons were ubiquitous. Rhinoplasty falls into the category of what Ambroise Paré named "facial plastic surgery". The technique is a medical source from which many histories derive, one more fascinating than the other: the history of those whose nose was cut off (because of state betrayal, adultery, abjuration, or duelling with swords), the history of those who invented the surgery of nose reconstruction (e.g. SuSruta-samhita or Tagliacozzi?), the history of surgeries kept secret in early modern Europe (e.g. Tropea, Calabria, Leiden, Padua, Paris, Berlin), and so on. Where does the history of Nicolae Milescu the Snub-nosed fall in all of this? How much of this history do the Moldavian Chronicles record? Is there any "scholarly gossip" in the aristocratic and diplomatic environments at Constantinople? What exactly do the British ambassadors learn concerning Rhinoplasty when they meet Milescu? How do we "walk" within these histories, and why should we be interested at all? What is their stike for modernity? Such are the interrogations that this article seeks to provoke; its purpose is to question (and eventually, synchronise) histories, and not exclusively history, both in academic terms but also by reassessing the practical knowledge of the 17th century.

[The stages of development of Ayurvedic medicine]

The Ayurveda medicine as one the three traditional systems of healing developed during millennia at the Hindustan subcontinent (the ancient India). Nowadays, Ayurveda medicine is widely used in many countries. The present day researchers mark out and analyze several periods in its history.

[Epilepsy in literature, cinema and television]

INTRODUCTION

Literature, cinema and television have often portrayed stereotypical images of people that have epilepsy and have helped foster false beliefs about the disease.

AIM

To examine the image of epilepsy presented by literature, cinema and television over the years.

DEVELOPMENT

Epilepsy has frequently been portrayed in literary works, films and television series, often relating it with madness, delinquency, violent behaviours or possession by the divine or the diabolical, all of which has helped perpetuate our ancestral beliefs. The literary tales and the images that appear in films and on television cause an important emotional impact and, bearing in mind that many people will only ever see an epileptic seizure in a film or in a TV series or might gain some information about the disorder from a literary text, what they see on the screen or read in the novels will be their only points of reference. Such experiences will therefore mark the awareness and knowledge they will have about epilepsy and their attitudes towards the people who suffer from it. Novels and films are fiction, but it is important to show realistic images of the disease that are no longer linked to the false beliefs of the past and which help the general public to have a more correct view of epilepsy that is free from prejudices and stereotypes.

CONCLUSIONS

Literature, cinema and television have often dealt with the subject of epilepsy, sometimes realistically, but in many cases they have only helped to perpetuate false beliefs about this disease.

Changing scenario for promotion and development of Ayurveda--way forward

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ayurveda, derives from the Sanskrit words Ayus (life) and Veda (knowledge) is the most ancient system of traditional medicine of the world. It has been practiced in Indian peninsula since 5000 BC to offer natural ways to treat diseases and to promote healthcare.

METHODOLOGY

We reviewed the literature on the history, principles and current status of Ayurveda. The data have been presented systematically including the initiatives from Government of India. Several aspects of administrative management, education, teaching and related aspects for promotion and development of Ayurveda and other Indian systems of traditional medicine have been discussed.

RESULTS

This paper reviews on different aspects of development of Ayurveda. Presently, there are 2420 hospitals with about 42271 beds, 15017 dispensaries, 429246 registered practitioners, more than 320 educational institutions, 7699 drug-manufacturing units to promote Ayurveda into the health care delivery system in the country. Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India is the official document for single Ayurvedic drugs (540 monographs) and different formulations (152 monographs). Several aspects in this regard for development of Ayurveda have been discussed.

CONCLUSION

Considering the widespread use and popularity of Ayurveda worldwide, administrative management and infrastructure facilities, indigenous practices and standards for quality control and it's evaluation have been highlighted. In India, all such efforts for integration of Ayurveda provide potential role in the health care benefits.

The history of the discovery of blood circulation: unrecognized contributions of Ayurveda masters

Ayurveda, the native healthcare system of India, is a rich resource of well-documented ancient medical knowledge. Although the roots of this knowledge date back to the Vedic and post-Vedic eras, it is generally believed that a dedicated branch for healthcare was gradually established approximately between 400 BCE and 200 CE. Probably because the language of documentation of these early textbooks is in Sanskrit, a language that is not in day-to-day use among the general population even in India, many significant contributions of Ayurveda have remained unrecognized in the literature related to the history of medicine. In this communication, the discovery of blood circulation has been taken up as a case, and a few important references from the representative Ayurveda compendia that hint at a preliminary understanding of the cardiovascular system as a "closed circuit" and the heart acting as a pump have been reviewed. The central argument of this review is that these contributions from Ayurveda too must be recorded and credited when reviewing the milestones in the history of medicine, as Ayurveda can still possibly guide various streams of the current sciences, if revisited with this spirit.

[A study of the Arśapraśamanisūtra: analysis]

The present paper focuses primarily on a philological and historical study of the Arśapraśamanisūtra ("The Sūtra of the Tranquilization of Hemorrhoids"). This Sūtra is one of the Buddhist scriptures that is characterized by the magico-religious treatment of various diseases, especially by means of "healing spells" (skt. dhāranī or mantra), as shown by the preliminary survey in our penultimate paper "The Tradition of Healing with Magical Spells as Seen in Buddhist Texts," Journal of the Japan Society of Medical History 55/1 (2009), 77-96. In our last paper "The Tradition of Healing with Magical Spells as Seen in Buddhist Texts (2): A Study of the Arśapraśamanisūtra: Edition and Japanese translation" we provided critically edited texts of the Tibetan and Chinese translations accompanied by their Japanese translations with critical notes and annotations. In this paper we analyze the descriptions of hemorrhoids as found in the Sūtra in comparison with those illustrated in classical Ayurveda literature, besides a detailed philological examination of the relevant passages available only in the Chinese translation of the Mūlasarvāstivāda-Vinaya. We also offer further observations about the methods and principles for the treatment and healing of hemorrhoids that are attested in Buddhist scriptures, as well as make an overview of the transmission and historical reception of the Arśapraśamanisūtra in Japan between the Nara and the Taishō periods.

[Study of "The Sūitra of the tranquilization of hemorrhoids" and other relevant material]

The present paper focuses primarily on a philological and historical study of the Arśapraśamanisūtra ("The Sütra of the tranquilization of hemorrhoids"). This Sūtra is one of the Buddhist scriptures that are characterized by the magico-religious treatment of various diseases, especially by means of "healing spells" (skt. dhāranī or mantra), as shown by the preliminary survey in our previous paper "The Tradition of healing with magical spells as seen in Buddhist texts", Journal of the Japan Society of Medical History 55/1 (2009), 77-96. The original text of the Arśapraśamanisūtra, most probably written in Sanskrit, is lost whereas its Chinese and Tibetan translations have survived. After an introductory summary, we provide critically edited texts of the Tibetan and Chinese translations accompanied by their Japanese translations with critical notes and annotations. In particular, the Tibetan translation presented here has been critically edited for the first time on the basis of collation of the five editions of the Tibetan Buddhist Canon. In our next paper we will analyze the descriptions of hemorrhoids as found in the Sūtra in comparison with those illustrated in classical Ayurveda literature. And we will also offer further observations about the methods and principles for the treatment and healing of hemorrhoid that are attested in Buddhist scriptures.

[Ayurvedics drugs in France. Laboratories polytherapic, a test]

In the beginning of the thirties, Dr Jean Saidman, who has already created a rotative solarium at Aix-les-Bains, built another one in Jamnagar (India). When he was there, he discovered ayurvedic therapy. After the Second World War, with his friends Dr Rémus Krainik and the chemist René-Henri Monceaux, he set up a "néo-ayurvedic action committee", and then a pharmaceutical laboratory, "Polythérapic", to export to french colonies patents medicines inspired by indian medicine. The authors tale this experience suddenly stopped by the unexpected death of Jean Saidman, in 1949.

[Tamil medicine and the perception of pietist missionaries of the Danish-Halle Tranquebar Mission in the 1st half of the 18th century]

The cooperation between medical systems of different cultures is a widely discussed problem. In an historical example, the perception of Tamil medicine by the Pietist missionaries of the Danish-Halle Mission in the first half of the 18th century illustrated the different meaning assigned to diseases and cures as well as differences in medical treatments compared to European medicine. Published for over 60 years starting in 1708, the Halle Reports enable us to understand the changes and developments in the relationship between the European and Tamil cultures that met in Southern India. The entrance of the first-generation Pietist missionaries (until 1720) was clearly silhouetted against a behavior that was directed at suppressing the traditional and asserting the European forms of cultural practice. They developed forms of a partnership-like association which is still discernable in the edited reports. The encounter between the Pietist missionaries and Tamil culture can be characterized as both empirical and critically reflective thanks to excellent language skills and an open-minded perspective.

[Ancient history of Indian pharmacy]

The study of the ancient history of Indian medicine has recently been revived due to the publication of polyglot translations. However, little is known of ancient Indian pharmacy. Archaeological evidence suggests the Indus people lived a settled life approximately in 2500 B.C. Their cities were enjoying the cleanest and most hygienic daily life with elaborate civic sanitation systems. The whole conception shows a remarkable concern for health. Then, the early Aryans invaded India about 1500 B.C. and the Vedic age started. The Rgveda texts contain the hymns for Soma and those for herbs. The term Ayurveda (i.e., science of life) is found in some old versions of both Ramāyana and Mahābhārata and in the Atharvaveda. Suśruta had the credit of making a breakthrough in the field of surgery. The Ayurveda, a work on internal medicine, gives the following transmission of sages: Brahmā-->Daksa-->Prajāpati-->Aśivinau-->Indra-->Caraka. On the other hand, the Suśruta-samhitā, which deals mainly with surgical medicine, explains it as follows; Indra-->Dhanvantari-->Suśruta Both Caraka and Suśruta were medical doctors as well as pharmacists, so they studied more than 1000 herbs thoroughly. The Ayurveda had been used by his devotees for medical purposes. It eventually spread over Asia with the advanced evolution of Buddhism.

The science behind sacredness of Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum Linn.)

Medicinal properties of Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum Linn) are known for thousand years to various civilizations of the world. This medicinal herb is considered as a sacred plant by the Hindus in the Indian subcontinent. Scientific explorations of traditional belief of medicinal properties of Tulsi have got momentum mostly after the middle of the 20th century. In the present review, efforts have been made to sum up different aspects of scientific studies on this medicinal plant. Scientific evidences are available on various medicinal aspects i.e. antimicrobial, adaptogenic, antidiabetic, hepato-protective, anti-inflammatory, anti-carcinogenic, radioprotective, immunomodulatory, neuro-protective, cardio-protective, mosquito repellent etc. to name a few. Most of these evidences are based on in-vitro, experimental and a few human studies.

Rustom Jal Vakil and the saga of Rauwolfia serpentina

Dr Rustom Jal Vakil was India's pioneer in cardiology. He introduced the discipline of cardiology in his country. His mixture of clinical acumen, research and writing has survived him. Through his work with an ancient Indian folk remedy, Rauwolfia serpentina, he ushered in the modern era of effective pharmacotherapy of hypertension. His work was particularly significant since it galvanized other workers into finding more effective agents for the treatment of hypertension. He is remembered fondly by his acquaintances as an unassuming man in whom a multitude of choicest qualities blended seamlessly with each other.

Historical review of Svarna Măksika

The old age Ayurvedic claim about the therapeutic importance of metals and mineral bhasmas are time tasted. To make available the evidence for use of metals and minerals in therapeutics and to provide the knowledge of processing techniques in ancient India it is very much necessary to look over the history. Rasa săstra is the branch of Ayurvedic science which deals with the pharmaceutical processings of the metals and minerals. Svarna Măksika is one of the most important materials described in various Rasa literatures as well as in Sarmhităs and in other Ayurvedic texts. Going through the different literatures its different features, geological distributions and various processing techniques like sŏdhana, mărana are found. In Samhită period only the features were described but during 7th Cen. AD & onwards its processings were found. Now a day Svarrna Măksika is correlated with chalcopyrite by modern metallurgists. The features of chalcopyrite are also given to assist the more study in this regard. In the current paper it is tried to collect and compile all the related area about Svarna Măksika from all possible ancient literary resources as well as from possible modern texts, to facilitate further research.

Paśu Ayurvĕda (veterinary medicine) in Garudapurăņa

The history of veterinary medicine is closely tied to the development of human medicine. Evidence of animal medicine has been found in ancient civilizations, such as those of the Hindu, Babylonians, Hebrews, Arabs, Greeks, and Romans. Ancient Indian literature in the form of the holy Vĕda, Purăna, Brăhmaņa, epics, etc. is flooded with information on animal care. The Purăņa are ancient scriptures discuss varied topics like devotion to God and his various aspects, traditional sciences like Ayurvĕda, Jyŏtişa (Astrology), cosmology, concepts like dharma, karma, reincarnation and many others. The treatment of animal diseases using Ayurvedic medicine has been mentioned in Garudapurăna, Agnipurăņa, Atri-samhită, Matsyapurăņa and many other texts. The Garudapurăņa is one of the important Săttvika purăna, the subject matter is divided into two parts, viz. Pŭrvakhaņda (first part) and an Uttarakhaņda (subsequent part). Gavăyurvĕda, Gajăyurvĕda narrated briefly and Aśvăyurvĕda described detailly in Pŭrvakhaņda.

Medico-historical review of Nyagrŏdha (Ficus bengalensis Linn.)

Nyagrŏdha the Banyan tree (Ficus bengalensis Linn.) is a sacred medicinal plant since Vedic times. The English name Banyan is given by the Britishers to this tree because under the tree Banias i.e., the Hindu merchants used to assemble for business. The triad Ganges, the Himalayas and the Banyan tree are symbolise the images of India, hence it is considered as National Tree. Ficus means fig and bengalensis means belonging to or is of Bengal. To the most of Indians it is Sacred and symbolizes all three Gods of Hindus. The bark represents Lord Visnu, Brahma the roots and Siva the branches. Since Vedic times its small branches are used in Yajña (a sacrificial rite) and known for its giant structure. Alexander the Great is said to have camped under a banyan tree, which was big enough to shelter his whole army of 7,000 men. As per Vĕda it checks the environmental pollution and one of the source of Lăksă (Lac). Its medicinal importance is well documented in Ayurvĕda literature. However, more research needs for understanding the medicinal properties of this symbolic tree.

A critical study of the manuscripts of Paryaya Muktavali available at Orissa

Though the Nidana book of Madhavakara has been very popular among Ayurvedic fraternity his other deeds on Dravyaguna, Cikitsa etc. could not come to lime light due to lack of sufficient number of manuscripts for comparison and editing. One such text is Paryaya Muktavali, manuscripts of which are plentily available in the State of Orissa. This modified text redacted by Hari Charana Sena, is a bright example of scribal error and missing of verses which occur during repeated scribe in palm leaf manuscript. This is a lexicon of drugs, which is prime necessity of Dravyaguna and Rasaśastra. Publication of such text will be an addition to the treasure of Ayurvedic texts.

Udumbara (Ficus glomerata Roxb.): a medico-historical review

Udumbara is well known drug for its use since ancient times. Atharvaveda considers this as a divine plant and much used in religious sacrifice. It is also called as Yajñodumbara. It grows abundantly in all parts of India. In Ayurveda bark, leaves and unripe fruits etc. are used externally and internally to cure many diseases like Pravahika (Dysentery), Pradara (Menorrhagia), Raktapitta (Haemoptysis) etc. Thus its medico-historical importance and other details have been presented in this article.

[A wanderer between cultures--Reinhold F.G. Mueller (1882-1966) as Indologist and historian of medicine]

Reinhold Mueller has been the one and only historian of medicine in Germany who worked in the field of the Indian history of medicine from the 1920s to the 1960s. He influenced German, American and Indian researchers, but he was nearly forgotten soon after his death. This is the first paper about his life and work to be published. Mueller studied a wide range of topics, the history of Indian gynaecology, of psychiatry, of immunology and of general practice and his subsequent articles were published in the principal contemporary magazines. However, he did not have a perfect understanding of Sanskrit language and writing. Moreover, as he subordinated his research to the premises of National Socialism and of communism, some of his articles have to be seen as part of an Aryan-Germanic race discourse. Yet, these inadequacies and mistakes did not prevent other researchers from maintaining contact with him after 1945. Even when Anglo-American historians of medicine began to study Indian medicine in the 1980s, his publications were re-examined and analysed.

Medical information in Agnipurana

Agnipurana is one amongst the 18 Purana of the Hindu literature. Its title is so because it was narrated by Agni to Vaśistha. It consists of 16000 stanzas distributed in 383 chapters. It has not only the compilation of special topics from different Ayurvedic texts but also carries information regarding some missing links, serets and some issues which are not disussed in Ayurveda. There is deference of opinion regarding the date of this Purana. Medical information given in Agnipurana was taken from Suśruta Samhita, Astanga Sangraha, Vrnda Madhava and Cakradatta etc. At some places slokas were reproduced and at some places zist has been taken. Basic principles, anatomy, physiology, medicine etc. medical information is available in Agnipurana which is being presented in this article.

Biography of Narahari -- the author of Raja-Nighantu

Narahari Pandita, who was the son of Iśvarasuri and resident of Kashmir was an erudite scholar of all branches of Sanskrit learning and was also well versed in regional languages of Karnataka, Maharastra and Andhra. His work Raja-Nighantu is also known as Nghantu Raja or Abhidhana Cudamani. His date may be placed in 17th century A.D. i.e. after Bhavamiśra. Some of the new and more interesting plants added are, Brahmadandi, Dhumrapatra, Ekavira, Hastiśundi, Jambu, Jhandu, Samudraphala, Svetamli, Sveta, Vrścika etc. Thus information about Narahari and his work is presented in this article.

A review of Brahmavaivartapurana (BVP) with reference to Ayurveda

Brahmavaivartapurana is one of the important Mahapurana, which is considered as a Vaisnavapurana. The text is divided into four parts called khanda i.e., Brahma, Prakrti, Ganapati, and Srikrsnajanmakhanda. The total number of chapters are 276 and comprising about 20,500 verses. Brahmavaivartapurana comprises both ancient and medieval materials. It considers Ayurveda as Pancama Veda and devoted 16th chapter of Brahmakhanda which describes the origin of Ayurveda its propagaters headed by Bhaskara (sun god) and his 16 students and their corresponding books in detail. An account of the Jvara (Fever) and other diseases, Dinacarya (daily routine), Rtucarya (seasonal regimen), Tridosa (three humours), their Prakopa (Vitiation) and Praśamana (palliation) etc are described in this book. BVP deals with the do's and dont's of food intake, sleep and sexual indulgance in detail which are deemed to be Trayopastambha (three sub pillers of health). The book provides an account of Plant Tulsi's origin and its spiritual importance. Prakrti (nature's) origins, Pañcamahabhuta nature of the body are described in Prakrtikhanda. At the flag end of the book there is a legend describing the origin of Lord Dhanvantari and describes his scholarship in the field of Veda and śastra. On the whole purana provides glimpse of the life style of a Vaisnava devoutee and the people of the time when it was compiled. It serves the purpose of a practical manual to lead a healthy life and ensure spiritual growth in the life of any individual who believes in the precepts of this book.

Hastyăyurvĕda--a complete treatise on elephants

Ayurvĕda, the oldest existing medical science of India, which is not only responsible for the health of human beings but also, plays an important in Veterinary sciences. In India, history of traditional Veterinary medicine dates back to the era of Mahăbhărata i.e.5000 B.C., recorded in the form of "Nakula Samhhită". Hastăyurvĕda is a treatise on elephants, Palkăpya wrote this Samhită. The present book is available as a complete Samhită, edited by Pandit Shivadutta Sharma. Hastăyurvĕda was printed at Anandăśrama press in 1894. Hastăyurvĕda has 160 Adhyăyăs. This Samhită is based on fundamental principles of Ayurvĕda, containing all aspects of Sharir including Anatomy & Physiology, Rog Vigyăna, Surgery and Treatment of elephants as well as their care. It is the one and only complete printed Samhită and rare book on Hastăyurvĕda by Palkăpya.

A prologue on "Vastuguna Dipika". The Andhra Ayurvĕda Nighantu of 1883 A.D

Vastuguna Dipika is a Nighantu Grantha written in Telugu language on Ayurvĕda drugs, diets and deeds in an alphabetical order in Telugu language and it is a much popular book for more than a century. Yerra Venkata Swamy (retired district Munsif) has authored and published it on 23rd June, 1883 A.D. It is a period of printing facility introduced in India. It is edited and reprinted eight times by the successors of same "Yerra" family during a period of century. The subject content of the book has been slowly updated from edition to edition. Vastuguna Dipika comprising of 1148 pages in written. Drug like Coffee, Cabbage have been elaborately dealt with Ayurvĕda viewpoint. Certain drugs like Lasuna, Haridra also have been dealt very elaborately. In this book several drugs are grouped according to action and indications. Mineral drugs and mercurial preparations are also dealt in detail. Along with the properties of drugs and diet the properties and uses of certain routine deeds like bathing, sleeping exercise etc; are explained in the book. An alphabetical index of diseases in English in found along with the alphabetical indices of drugs in English, Telugu and Sanskrit languages.

Introduction to Garudapurăna with reference to Ayurvĕda

The Purănas are the encyclopedic works of the ancient and medieval Hindu religion, philosophy, history, politics, ethics, sciences etc. There are 18 (Astădaśa) purănas, which are, considered as mahăpurănas, among which Garudapurăna is popular one. The Garudapurăna is divided into two parts viz., Pŭrvakhanda and Uttarakhanda. The first part, which is also called Acărakhanda consists of 240 chapters. The greater part of the Pŭrvakhanda occupies the descriptions of Vratas (religious observances), sacred places dedicated to the Sŭrya (sun), Lord Siva and Lord Visnu. It also contains treatises on various aspects like astrology, palmistry, politics, Sănkhya, Yŏga, anatomy, precious stones and extensive information on vedic medicine i.e., Ayurveda. The Uttarakhanda consists of two khandas viz. Dharmakhanda and Brahmakhanda, which are divided into 42 and 29 chapters, respectively. The Dharmakhanda is also known as the Prĕtakalpa which contains directions for the performance of obsequies rites. The Prĕtakalpa portion of the Garudapurăna is generally recited during the period of mourning and so its importance is self-evident. It is almost impossible to narrate within such a small framework, the wide range of splendid truths scattered in the pages of this noble purănam. Little information is available from internal evidence to establish its exact period. However, it is supposed to be quite ancient in its origin.

Palăśa (Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub.) and its medico-historical study

Palăśa (Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub.) is considered sacred both by Hindus and Buddhists. It is known to the Hindus under the Sănskrt name Palăśa as it possesses valuable medicinal properties. This sacred tree is being called the treasurer of the gods and of sacrifice. It grows throughout India except in very arid parts and is a medium sized deciduous tree. Parts used are bark, leaf, flower, seed and gum. It is mainly useful as antihelmenthic appetizer, aphrodisiac, laxative etc. Thus its medico- historical aspects are being presented in this paper.

Thirumŭlar--pioneer of the immunology concept

Extraordinary longevity of life, made possible by repeated reading and following of the text Thirumandiram 3000 - written by great Siddhar Thirumŭlar. He the Prince of Mystics is one of the 18 luminous Siddhars and the first and foremost #1 Siva śiddhăndi. Historians and scholars predicted his life period between 5th to 8th centuries AD. In his teachings, he explained the kinds of 'Thavam' (Yoga) and he insisted the #2 'Kăya siddhi'. Thousands of years ago, he wrote in detail about Anatomy of microcosm, Siddha physiology, Humoural pathology, Science of pulse, Microcosmic Atom theory, Immunology concept and Immortalization of our body. His marvelous text Thirumandiram deals with Medical science, Life science, Natural science and Divine. In this article authors, discuss about the biography of Thirumŭlar and his medical works.

Importance of Ananda kanda in the history of Indian alchemy

Rasa Săstra is an important branch of Ayurvĕda developed for achieving therapeutic benefits from mineral materials. Ananda kanda is one of this subject text which gives an elaborate description of this subject. Dĕhavada concept of Rasa Săstra has been described elaborately along with Lŏha vada in this text. This book serves an important reference text. This book serves an important reference text for students and scholars of Rasa Săstra for teaching and training practical purposes.

A review of the clinical and toxicological aspects of 'traditional' (herbal) medicines adulterated with heavy metals

The popularity of traditional remedies has greatly increased in westernised countries over recent years. Although many of these remedies are used safely, there have recently been an increasing number of case reports being published of heavy metal poisoning after the use of traditional remedies, in particular, Indian Ayurvedic remedies. This study reviews the data on published cases, along with the history of Ayurvedic medicine in an attempt to provide an insight into why heavy metals, in particular lead, mercury and arsenic are added in such large concentrations to these remedies.

Medico-historical study of "aśvattha" (sacred fig tree)

Aśvattha (Ficus religiosa Linn.) is a tree which has got mythological, religious and medicinal importance in Indian culture since ancient times. As per Vedic Index Aśvattha means horse stand, a place or site or an object where or under which horses stand. Aśvattha is also known as Pipal and Bodhidrma. This tree is the oldest depicted tree in India. In Vedic times it was used to make fire by friction and considered sacred. Atharvavĕda associates it with the third heaven. It discusses medicinal properties of Aśvattha along with Soma and Kuştha. Aśvattha is associated with the triad of Gods-Brahma, vişņu and siva. Reference to Aśvattha is found in Rămăyaņa, Mahăbhărata, Bhagavadgĭta, Buddhistic literature, Arthaśăstra, Purănăs, Upanişads etc. non-medical literature also. According to Ayurvĕda it has several synonyms. Most of them symbolize its sacredness. Aśvattha is useful in various ailments like consumption, vomiting, ulcers in oral cavity, burns, gynaecological problems etc. Thus its medico-historical importance, regional nomenclature, morphological features in brief etc. are being presented in this article with few illustrations.

Biography of Sŏdhala and his contribution to Ayurvĕda

Sŏdhala was a scholar of Ayurvĕda as well as săhitya, Jyotisya, Vyakaraņa and also a good poet who belongs to Gujarat. Sŏdhala contributed two important works to Ayurvĕda literature namely 1. Sŏdhbala nighaņţu, 2. Gadanigraha. Sŏdhala nighaņţu consists of two parts and contains about 2,050 (790+1,260) verses. The section on synonyms, the Nămasangraha, and the other one is on properties and actions of drugs, the Guņasangraha. The arrangement of the material constitutes an unprecedented innovation in the literature of Nighaņţu (Ayurvĕda drug's lexicons or dictionaries). The Gadanigraha is composed of two distinct parts and contains about 10,054 (2,700+7,354) verses. The first part is a collection of formulae arranged according to the several types of pharmaceutical preparations and the second one is a comprehensive text dealing with both Nidăna and cikitsă, arranged as for the Aşţăngas (8 major divisions) of Ayurvĕda. The work seems to be later than Sŏdhalanighaņţu because most of the drugs mentioned in this work are not found in the Sŏdhalanighaņţu. The diseases are arranged in systematically, which is a new feature and their order is differ from Mădhavanidăna. From the available evidences we can assume that Sŏdhala might be belongs to 1200 A.D. The contributions of Sŏdhala are noteworthy and they are important landmark works in history of Ayurvĕda.