1
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Weber Y, Böck D, Ivașcu A, Mathis N, Rothgangl T, Ioannidi EI, Blaudt AC, Tidecks L, Vadovics M, Muramatsu H, Reichmuth A, Marquart KF, Kissling L, Pardi N, Jinek M, Schwank G. Enhancing prime editor activity by directed protein evolution in yeast. Nat Commun 2024; 15:2092. [PMID: 38453904 PMCID: PMC10920827 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-46107-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2023] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 03/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Prime editing is a highly versatile genome editing technology that enables the introduction of base substitutions, insertions, and deletions. However, compared to traditional Cas9 nucleases prime editors (PEs) are less active. In this study we use OrthoRep, a yeast-based platform for directed protein evolution, to enhance the editing efficiency of PEs. After several rounds of evolution with increased selection pressure, we identify multiple mutations that have a positive effect on PE activity in yeast cells and in biochemical assays. Combining the two most effective mutations - the A259D amino acid substitution in nCas9 and the K445T substitution in M-MLV RT - results in the variant PE_Y18. Delivery of PE_Y18, encoded on DNA, mRNA or as a ribonucleoprotein complex into mammalian cell lines increases editing rates up to 3.5-fold compared to PEmax. In addition, PE_Y18 supports higher prime editing rates when delivered in vivo into the liver or brain. Our study demonstrates proof-of-concept for the application of OrthoRep to optimize genome editing tools in eukaryotic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanik Weber
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Desirée Böck
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Anastasia Ivașcu
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Nicolas Mathis
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Tanja Rothgangl
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Eleonora I Ioannidi
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Alex C Blaudt
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Lisa Tidecks
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Máté Vadovics
- Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Hiromi Muramatsu
- Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Andreas Reichmuth
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Kim F Marquart
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Institute of Molecular Health Sciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Lucas Kissling
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Norbert Pardi
- Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Martin Jinek
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Gerald Schwank
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
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2
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Schmidheini L, Mathis N, Marquart KF, Rothgangl T, Kissling L, Böck D, Chanez C, Wang JP, Jinek M, Schwank G. Continuous directed evolution of a compact CjCas9 variant with broad PAM compatibility. Nat Chem Biol 2024; 20:333-343. [PMID: 37735239 DOI: 10.1038/s41589-023-01427-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2022] [Accepted: 08/23/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023]
Abstract
CRISPR-Cas9 genome engineering is a powerful technology for correcting genetic diseases. However, the targeting range of Cas9 proteins is limited by their requirement for a protospacer adjacent motif (PAM), and in vivo delivery is challenging due to their large size. Here, we use phage-assisted continuous directed evolution to broaden the PAM compatibility of Campylobacter jejuni Cas9 (CjCas9), the smallest Cas9 ortholog characterized to date. The identified variant, termed evoCjCas9, primarily recognizes N4AH and N5HA PAM sequences, which occur tenfold more frequently in the genome than the canonical N3VRYAC PAM site. Moreover, evoCjCas9 exhibits higher nuclease activity than wild-type CjCas9 on canonical PAMs, with editing rates comparable to commonly used PAM-relaxed SpCas9 variants. Combined with deaminases or reverse transcriptases, evoCjCas9 enables robust base and prime editing, with the small size of evoCjCas9 base editors allowing for tissue-specific installation of A-to-G or C-to-T transition mutations from single adeno-associated virus vector systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Schmidheini
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Institute of Molecular Health Sciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Nicolas Mathis
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Kim Fabiano Marquart
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Institute of Molecular Health Sciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Tanja Rothgangl
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Lucas Kissling
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Desirée Böck
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Christelle Chanez
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - Martin Jinek
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Gerald Schwank
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
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3
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Hillen AEJ, Hruzova M, Rothgangl T, Breur M, Bugiani M, van der Knaap MS, Schwank G, Heine VM. In vivo targeting of a variant causing vanishing white matter using CRISPR/Cas9. Mol Ther Methods Clin Dev 2022; 25:17-25. [PMID: 35317047 PMCID: PMC8917273 DOI: 10.1016/j.omtm.2022.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Accepted: 02/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Vanishing white matter (VWM) is a leukodystrophy caused by recessive variants in subunits of eIF2B. At present, no curative treatment is available and patients often die at young age. Due to its monogenic nature, VWM is a promising candidate for the development of CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene therapy. Here we tested a dual-AAV approach in VWM mice encoding CRISPR/Cas9 and a DNA donor template to correct a pathogenic variant in Eif2b5. We performed sequencing analysis to assess gene correction rates and examined effects on the VWM phenotype, including motor behavior. Sequence analysis demonstrated that over 90% of CRISPR/Cas9-induced edits at the targeted locus are insertion or deletion (indel) mutations, rather than precise corrections from the DNA donor template by homology-directed repair. Around half of the CRISPR/Cas9-treated animals died prematurely. VWM mice showed no improvement in motor skills, weight, or neurological scores at 7 months of age, and CRISPR/Cas9-treated controls displayed an induced VWM phenotype. In conclusion, CRISPR/Cas9-induced DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) at the Eif2b5 locus did not lead to sufficient correction of the VWM variant. Moreover, indel formation in Eif2b5 induced an exacerbated VWM phenotype. Therefore, DSB-independent strategies like base- or prime editing might better suited for VWM correction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne E J Hillen
- Department of Pediatrics and Child Neurology, Emma Children's Hospital, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam UMC, De Boelelaan 1117, 1081 Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Martina Hruzova
- Department of Biology, Institute for Molecular Health Sciences, ETH Zurich, Otto-Stern-Weg 7, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland.,Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Tanja Rothgangl
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Marjolein Breur
- Department of Pediatrics and Child Neurology, Emma Children's Hospital, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam UMC, De Boelelaan 1117, 1081 Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Marianna Bugiani
- Department of Pediatrics and Child Neurology, Emma Children's Hospital, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam UMC, De Boelelaan 1117, 1081 Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Marjo S van der Knaap
- Department of Pediatrics and Child Neurology, Emma Children's Hospital, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam UMC, De Boelelaan 1117, 1081 Amsterdam, the Netherlands.,Department of Functional Genomics, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, Amsterdam Neuroscience, VU University, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Gerald Schwank
- Department of Biology, Institute for Molecular Health Sciences, ETH Zurich, Otto-Stern-Weg 7, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland.,Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Vivi M Heine
- Department of Complex Trait Genetics, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, Amsterdam Neuroscience, VU University, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 Amsterdam, the Netherlands.,Department of Child and Adolescence Psychiatry, Emma Children's Hospital, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam UMC, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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4
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Böck D, Rothgangl T, Villiger L, Schmidheini L, Matsushita M, Mathis N, Ioannidi E, Rimann N, Grisch-Chan HM, Kreutzer S, Kontarakis Z, Kopf M, Thöny B, Schwank G. In vivo prime editing of a metabolic liver disease in mice. Sci Transl Med 2022; 14:eabl9238. [PMID: 35294257 PMCID: PMC7614134 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.abl9238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Prime editing is a highly versatile CRISPR-based genome editing technology that works without DNA double-strand break formation. Despite rapid technological advances, in vivo application for the treatment of genetic diseases remains challenging. Here, we developed a size-reduced SpCas9 prime editor (PE) lacking the RNaseH domain (PE2ΔRnH) and an intein-split construct (PE2 p.1153) for adeno-associated virus-mediated delivery into the liver. Editing efficiencies reached 15% at the Dnmt1 locus and were further elevated to 58% by delivering unsplit PE2ΔRnH via human adenoviral vector 5 (AdV). To provide proof of concept for correcting a genetic liver disease, we used the AdV approach for repairing the disease-causing Pahenu2 mutation in a mouse model of phenylketonuria (PKU) via prime editing. Average correction efficiencies of 11.1% (up to 17.4%) in neonates led to therapeutic reduction of blood phenylalanine, without inducing detectable off-target mutations or prolonged liver inflammation. Although the current in vivo prime editing approach for PKU has limitations for clinical application due to the requirement of high vector doses (7 × 1014 vg/kg) and the induction of immune responses to the vector and the PE, further development of the technology may lead to curative therapies for PKU and other genetic liver diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Desirée Böck
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Tanja Rothgangl
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Lukas Villiger
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland,Correspondence to: Lukas Villiger () and Gerald Schwank ()
| | - Lukas Schmidheini
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland,Institute of Molecular Health Sciences, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Mai Matsushita
- Institute of Molecular Health Sciences, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Nicolas Mathis
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Eleonora Ioannidi
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Nicole Rimann
- Division of Metabolism and Children’s Research Center, University Children’s Hospital Zurich, 8032 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Hiu Man Grisch-Chan
- Division of Metabolism and Children’s Research Center, University Children’s Hospital Zurich, 8032 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Susanne Kreutzer
- Genome Engineering and Measurement Laboratory (GEML), ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland,Functional Genomics Center Zurich, ETH Zurich/University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Zacharias Kontarakis
- Genome Engineering and Measurement Laboratory (GEML), ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland,Functional Genomics Center Zurich, ETH Zurich/University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Manfred Kopf
- Institute of Molecular Health Sciences, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Beat Thöny
- Division of Metabolism and Children’s Research Center, University Children’s Hospital Zurich, 8032 Zurich, Switzerland,Zurich Center for Integrative Human Physiology, 8006 Zurich, Switzerland,Neuroscience Center Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Gerald Schwank
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland,Correspondence to: Lukas Villiger () and Gerald Schwank ()
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5
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Villiger L, Schmidheini L, Mathis N, Rothgangl T, Marquart K, Schwank G. Replacing the SpCas9 HNH domain by deaminases generates compact base editors with an alternative targeting scope. Molecular Therapy - Nucleic Acids 2021; 26:502-510. [PMID: 34631280 PMCID: PMC8479293 DOI: 10.1016/j.omtn.2021.08.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
Base editors are RNA-guided deaminases that enable site-specific nucleotide transitions. The targeting scope of these Cas-deaminase fusion proteins critically depends on the availability of a protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) at the target locus and is limited to a window within the CRISPR-Cas R-loop, where single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) is accessible to the deaminase. Here, we reason that the Cas9-HNH nuclease domain sterically constrains ssDNA accessibility and demonstrate that omission of this domain expands the editing window. By exchanging the HNH nuclease domain with a monomeric or heterodimeric adenosine deaminase, we furthermore engineer adenine base editor variants (HNHx-ABEs) with PAM-proximally shifted editing windows. This work expands the targeting scope of base editors and provides base editor variants that are substantially smaller. It moreover informs of potential future directions in Cas9 protein engineering, where the HNH domain could be replaced by other enzymes that act on ssDNA.
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6
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Rothgangl T, Dennis MK, Lin PJC, Oka R, Witzigmann D, Villiger L, Qi W, Hruzova M, Kissling L, Lenggenhager D, Borrelli C, Egli S, Frey N, Bakker N, Walker JA, Kadina AP, Victorov DV, Pacesa M, Kreutzer S, Kontarakis Z, Moor A, Jinek M, Weissman D, Stoffel M, van Boxtel R, Holden K, Pardi N, Thöny B, Häberle J, Tam YK, Semple SC, Schwank G. In vivo adenine base editing of PCSK9 in macaques reduces LDL cholesterol levels. Nat Biotechnol 2021; 39:949-957. [PMID: 34012094 PMCID: PMC8352781 DOI: 10.1038/s41587-021-00933-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 56.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 04/23/2021] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Most known pathogenic point mutations in humans are C•G to T•A substitutions, which can be directly repaired by adenine base editors (ABEs). In this study, we investigated the efficacy and safety of ABEs in the livers of mice and cynomolgus macaques for the reduction of blood low-density lipoprotein (LDL) levels. Lipid nanoparticle-based delivery of mRNA encoding an ABE and a single-guide RNA targeting PCSK9, a negative regulator of LDL, induced up to 67% editing (on average, 61%) in mice and up to 34% editing (on average, 26%) in macaques. Plasma PCSK9 and LDL levels were stably reduced by 95% and 58% in mice and by 32% and 14% in macaques, respectively. ABE mRNA was cleared rapidly, and no off-target mutations in genomic DNA were found. Re-dosing in macaques did not increase editing, possibly owing to the detected humoral immune response to ABE upon treatment. These findings support further investigation of ABEs to treat patients with monogenic liver diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanja Rothgangl
- University of Zurich, Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Rurika Oka
- Oncode Institute, Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Dominik Witzigmann
- University of Zurich, Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Lukas Villiger
- University of Zurich, Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Weihong Qi
- Functional Genomics Center Zurich, ETH Zurich/University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Martina Hruzova
- Department of Biology, Institute for Molecular Health Sciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Lucas Kissling
- University of Zurich, Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Daniela Lenggenhager
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Pathology, University Hospital and University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Costanza Borrelli
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Sabina Egli
- University of Zurich, Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Nina Frey
- Department of Biology, Institute for Molecular Health Sciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Noëlle Bakker
- University of Zurich, Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | | | | | - Martin Pacesa
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Susanne Kreutzer
- Functional Genomics Center Zurich, ETH Zurich/University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Genome Engineering and Measurement Laboratory, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Zacharias Kontarakis
- Functional Genomics Center Zurich, ETH Zurich/University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Genome Engineering and Measurement Laboratory, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Andreas Moor
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Martin Jinek
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Drew Weissman
- Department of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Markus Stoffel
- Department of Biology, Institute for Molecular Health Sciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Ruben van Boxtel
- Oncode Institute, Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | | | - Norbert Pardi
- Department of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Beat Thöny
- Division of Metabolism and Children's Research Centre, University Children's Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Zurich Center for Integrative Human Physiology, Zurich, Switzerland
- Neuroscience Center Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Johannes Häberle
- Division of Metabolism and Children's Research Centre, University Children's Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Zurich Center for Integrative Human Physiology, Zurich, Switzerland
- Institute of Molecular Life Sciences, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Ying K Tam
- Acuitas Therapeutics Inc., Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | | | - Gerald Schwank
- University of Zurich, Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Zurich, Switzerland.
- Department of Biology, Institute for Molecular Health Sciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
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7
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Villiger L, Rothgangl T, Witzigmann D, Oka R, Lin PJC, Qi W, Janjuha S, Berk C, Ringnalda F, Beattie MB, Stoffel M, Thöny B, Hall J, Rehrauer H, van Boxtel R, Tam YK, Schwank G. In vivo cytidine base editing of hepatocytes without detectable off-target mutations in RNA and DNA. Nat Biomed Eng 2021; 5:179-189. [PMID: 33495639 PMCID: PMC7610981 DOI: 10.1038/s41551-020-00671-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2020] [Accepted: 12/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Base editors are RNA-programmable deaminases that enable precise single-base conversions in genomic DNA. However, off-target activity is a concern in the potential use of base editors to treat genetic diseases. Here, we report unbiased analyses of transcriptome-wide and genome-wide off-target modifications effected by cytidine base editors in the liver of mice with phenylketonuria. The intravenous delivery of intein-split cytidine base editors by dual adeno-associated viruses led to the repair of the disease-causing mutation without generating off-target mutations in the RNA and DNA of the hepatocytes. Moreover, the transient expression of a cytidine base editor mRNA and a relevant single-guide RNA intravenously delivered by lipid nanoparticles led to ~21% on-target editing and to the reversal of the disease phenotype; there were also no detectable transcriptome-wide and genome-wide off-target edits. Our findings support the feasibility of therapeutic cytidine base editing to treat genetic liver diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Villiger
- Department of Biology, Institute for Molecular Health Sciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Tanja Rothgangl
- Department of Biology, Institute for Molecular Health Sciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Dominik Witzigmann
- Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Division of Pharmaceutical Technology, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Rurika Oka
- Oncode Institute, Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Paulo J C Lin
- Acuitas Therapeutics, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Weihong Qi
- Functional Genomics Center Zurich, ETH Zurich/University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Sharan Janjuha
- Department of Biology, Institute for Molecular Health Sciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Christian Berk
- Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Femke Ringnalda
- Department of Biology, Institute for Molecular Health Sciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | | | - Markus Stoffel
- Department of Biology, Institute for Molecular Health Sciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Beat Thöny
- Zurich Center for Integrative Human Physiology, Zurich, Switzerland
- Neuroscience Center Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Division of Metabolism, University Children's Hospital Zurich and Children's Research Centre, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jonathan Hall
- Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Hubert Rehrauer
- Functional Genomics Center Zurich, ETH Zurich/University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Ruben van Boxtel
- Oncode Institute, Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Ying K Tam
- Acuitas Therapeutics, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Gerald Schwank
- Department of Biology, Institute for Molecular Health Sciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
- Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
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