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Holveck MJ, Grégoire A, Guerreiro R, Staszewski V, Boulinier T, Gomez D, Doutrelant C. Kittiwake eggs viewed by conspecifics and predators: implications for colour signal evolution. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2017. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blx065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Coakley CM, Staszewski V, Herborn KA, Cunningham EJ. Factors affecting the levels of protection transferred from mother to offspring following immune challenge. Front Zool 2014; 11:46. [PMID: 25057280 PMCID: PMC4096548 DOI: 10.1186/1742-9994-11-46] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2014] [Accepted: 06/16/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The transfer of antibodies from mother to offspring is key to protecting young animals from disease and can have a major impact on responses to infection and offspring fitness. Such maternal effects also allow young that may be exposed to disease in early life to focus resources on growth and development at this critical period of development. Maternally transferred antibodies are therefore an important source of phenotypic variation in host phenotype as well as influencing host susceptibility and tolerance to infection across generations. It has previously been assumed the transfer of antibodies is passive and invariant and reflects the level of circulating antibody in the mother at the time of transfer. However, whether females may vary in the relative amount of protection transferred to offspring has seldom been explored. RESULTS Here we show that females differ widely in the relative amount of specific blood antibodies they transfer to the embryonic environment (range 9.2%-38.4% of their own circulating levels) in Chinese painted quail (Coturnix chinensis). Relative transfer levels were unrelated to the size of a female's own immune response. Furthermore, individual females were consistent in their transfer level, both across different stages of their immune response and when challenged with different vaccine types. The amount of antibody transferred was related to female condition, but baseline antibody responses of mothers were not. However, we found no evidence for any trade-offs between the relative amount of antibody transferred with other measures of reproductive investment. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that the relative amount of antibodies transferred to offspring can vary significantly and consistently between females. Levels of transfer may therefore be a separate trait open to manipulation or selection with potential consequences for offspring health and fitness in both wild and domesticated populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina M Coakley
- Centre for Infection, Immunity and Evolution, Institute of Evolutionary Biology, School of Biology, King's Buildings, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3JT, UK
| | - Vincent Staszewski
- Centre for Infection, Immunity and Evolution, Institute of Evolutionary Biology, School of Biology, King's Buildings, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3JT, UK
| | - Katherine A Herborn
- Centre for Infection, Immunity and Evolution, Institute of Evolutionary Biology, School of Biology, King's Buildings, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3JT, UK
| | - Emma Ja Cunningham
- Centre for Infection, Immunity and Evolution, Institute of Evolutionary Biology, School of Biology, King's Buildings, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3JT, UK
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Holveck MJ, Grégoire A, Staszewski V, Guerreiro R, Perret P, Boulinier T, Doutrelant C. Eggshell spottiness reflects maternally transferred antibodies in blue tits. PLoS One 2012; 7:e50389. [PMID: 23226272 PMCID: PMC3511563 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0050389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2011] [Accepted: 10/23/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Blue-green and brown-spotted eggshells in birds have been proposed as sexual signals of female physiological condition and egg quality, reflecting maternal investment in the egg. Testing this hypothesis requires linking eggshell coloration to egg content, which is lacking for brown protoporphyrin-based pigmentation. As protoporphyrins can induce oxidative stress, and a large amount in eggshells should indicate either high female and egg quality if it reflects the female's high oxidative tolerance, or conversely poor quality if it reflects female physiological stress. Different studies supported either predictions but are difficult to compare given the methodological differences in eggshell-spottiness measurements. Using the blue tit Cyanistes caeruleus as a model species, we aimed at disentangling both predictions in testing if brown-spotted eggshell could reflect the quality of maternal investment in antibodies and carotenoids in the egg, and at improving between-study comparisons in correlating several common measurements of eggshell coloration (spectral and digital measures, spotted surface, pigmentation indices). We found that these color variables were weakly correlated highlighting the need for comparable quantitative measurements between studies and for multivariate regressions incorporating several eggshell-color characteristics. When evaluating the potential signaling function of brown-spotted eggshells, we thus searched for the brown eggshell-color variables that best predicted the maternal transfer of antibodies and carotenoids to egg yolks. We also tested the effects of several parental traits and breeding parameters potentially affecting this transfer. While eggshell coloration did not relate to yolk carotenoids, the eggs with larger and less evenly-distributed spots had higher antibody concentrations, suggesting that both the quantity and distribution of brown pigments reflected the transfer of maternal immune compounds in egg yolks. As yolk antibody concentrations were also positively related to key proxies of maternal quality (egg volume, number, yellow feather brightness, tarsus length), eggshells with larger spots concentrated at their broad pole may indicate higher-quality eggs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Jeanne Holveck
- Ecologie Evolutive, Centre d'Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive (CEFE-CNRS), Montpellier, France.
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Staszewski V, Reece SE, O'Donnell AJ, Cunningham EJA. Drug treatment of malaria infections can reduce levels of protection transferred to offspring via maternal immunity. Proc Biol Sci 2012; 279:2487-96. [PMID: 22357264 PMCID: PMC3350664 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2011.1563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2011] [Accepted: 02/01/2012] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Maternally transferred immunity can have a fundamental effect on the ability of offspring to deal with infection. However, levels of antibodies in adults can vary both quantitatively and qualitatively between individuals and during the course of infection. How infection dynamics and their modification by drug treatment might affect the protection transferred to offspring remains poorly understood. Using the rodent malaria parasite Plasmodium chabaudi, we demonstrate that curing dams part way through infection prior to pregnancy can alter their immune response, with major consequences for offspring health and survival. In untreated maternal infections, maternally transferred protection suppressed parasitaemia and reduced pup mortality by 75 per cent compared with pups from naïve dams. However, when dams were treated with anti-malarial drugs, pups received fewer maternal antibodies, parasitaemia was only marginally suppressed, and mortality risk was 25 per cent higher than for pups from dams with full infections. We observed the same qualitative patterns across three different host strains and two parasite genotypes. This study reveals the role that within-host infection dynamics play in the fitness consequences of maternally transferred immunity. Furthermore, it highlights a potential trade-off between the health of mothers and offspring suggesting that anti-parasite treatment may significantly affect the outcome of infection in newborns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent Staszewski
- Centre for Infection Immunity and Evolution, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3JT, UK.
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Garnier R, Ramos R, Staszewski V, Militão T, Lobato E, González-Solís J, Boulinier T. Maternal antibody persistence: a neglected life-history trait with implications from albatross conservation to comparative immunology. Proc Biol Sci 2012; 279:2033-41. [PMID: 22189405 PMCID: PMC3311891 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2011.2277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2011] [Accepted: 12/01/2011] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The evolution of different life-history strategies has been suggested as a major force constraining physiological mechanisms such as immunity. In some long-lived oviparous species, a prolonged persistence of maternal antibodies in offspring could thus be expected in order to protect them over their long growth period. Here, using an intergenerational vaccination design, we show that specific maternal antibodies can display an estimated half-life of 25 days post-hatching in the nestlings of a long-lived bird. This temporal persistence is much longer than previously known for birds and it suggests specific properties in the regulation of IgY immunoglobulin catabolism in such a species. We also show that maternal antibodies in the considered procellariiform species are functional as late as 20 days of age. Using a modelling approach, we highlight that the potential impact of such effects on population viability could be important, notably when using vaccination for conservation. These results have broad implications, from comparative immunology to evolutionary eco-epidemiology and conservation biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- R. Garnier
- Centre d'Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive, CNRS-UMR 5175, Montpellier, France
| | - R. Ramos
- Centre d'Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive, CNRS-UMR 5175, Montpellier, France
- Institut de Recerca de la Biodiversitat (IRBio) and Dept. Biologia Animal, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - V. Staszewski
- Centre for Immunity Infection and Evolution, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - T. Militão
- Institut de Recerca de la Biodiversitat (IRBio) and Dept. Biologia Animal, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - E. Lobato
- Centre d'Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive, CNRS-UMR 5175, Montpellier, France
| | - J. González-Solís
- Institut de Recerca de la Biodiversitat (IRBio) and Dept. Biologia Animal, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - T. Boulinier
- Centre d'Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive, CNRS-UMR 5175, Montpellier, France
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Chambert T, Staszewski V, Lobato E, Choquet R, Carrie C, McCoy KD, Tveraa T, Boulinier T. Exposure of black-legged kittiwakes to Lyme disease spirochetes: dynamics of the immune status of adult hosts and effects on their survival. J Anim Ecol 2012; 81:986-95. [PMID: 22428953 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2656.2012.01979.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
1. Despite a growing interest in wildlife disease ecology, there is a surprising lack of knowledge about the exposure dynamics of individual animals to naturally circulating infectious agents and the impact of such agents on host life-history traits. 2. The exploration of these questions requires detailed longitudinal data on individual animals that can be captured multiple times during their life but also requires being able to account for several sources of uncertainty, notably the partial observation or recapture of individuals at each sampling occasion. 3. We use a multi-year dataset to (i) assess the potential effect of exposure to the tick-borne agent of Lyme disease, Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (Bbsl), on adult apparent survival for one of its natural long-lived hosts, the Black-legged kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla), and (ii) investigate the temporal dynamics of individual immunological status in kittiwakes to infer the rate of new exposure and the persistence of the immune response. Using a multi-event modelling approach, potential uncertainties arising from partial observations were explicitly taken into account. 4. The potential impact of Bbsl on kittiwake survival was also evaluated via an experimental approach: the apparent survival of a group of breeding birds treated with an antibiotic was compared with that of a control group. 5. No impact of exposure to Bbsl was detected on adult survival in kittiwakes, in either observational or experimental data. 6. An annual seroconversion rate (from negative to positive) of 1·5% was estimated, but once an individual became seropositive, it remained so with a probability of 1, suggesting that detectable levels of anti-Bbsl antibodies persist for multiple years. 7. These results, in combination with knowledge on patterns of exposure to the tick vector of Bbsl, provide important information for understanding the spatio-temporal nature of the interaction between this host and several of its parasites. Furthermore, our analyses highlight the utility of capture-mark-recapture approaches handling state uncertainty for disease ecology studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thierry Chambert
- Centre d'Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive, CNRS UMR 5175, 1919 route de Mende, 34293 Montpellier, France.
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Lobato E, Pearce-Duvet J, Staszewski V, Gómez-Díaz E, González-Solís J, Kitaysky A, McCoy KD, Boulinier T. Seabirds and the circulation of Lyme borreliosis bacteria in the North Pacific. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2011; 11:1521-7. [PMID: 21919724 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2010.0267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Seabirds act as natural reservoirs to Lyme borreliosis spirochetes and may play a significant role in the global circulation of these pathogens. While Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (Bbsl) has been shown to occur in ticks collected from certain locations in the North Pacific, little is known about interspecific differences in exposure within the seabird communities of this region. We examined the prevalence of anti-Bbsl antibodies in 805 individuals of nine seabird species breeding across the North Pacific. Seroprevalence varied strongly among species and locations. Murres (Uria spp.) showed the highest antibody prevalence and may play a major role in facilitating Bbsl circulation at a worldwide scale. Other species showed little or no signs of exposure, despite being present in multispecific colonies with seropositive birds. Complex dynamics may be operating in this wide scale, natural host-parasite system, possibly mediated by the host immune system and host specialization of the tick vector.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Lobato
- Centre d'Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive, CNRS UMR 5175, Montpellier, France.
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Staszewski V, McCoy KD, Boulinier T. Variable exposure and immunological response to Lyme disease Borrelia among North Atlantic seabird species. Proc Biol Sci 2008; 275:2101-9. [PMID: 18577503 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2008.0515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Colonial seabirds often breed in large aggregations. These individuals can be exposed to parasitism by the tick Ixodes uriae, but little is known about the circulation of pathogens carried by this ectoparasite, including Lyme disease Borrelia. Here we investigated the prevalence of antibodies (Ab) against Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato in seabird species sampled at eight locations across the North Atlantic. Using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay tests, we found that the prevalence of anti-Borrelia Ab in adult seabirds was 39.6% on average (over 444 individuals), but that it varied among colonies and species. Common guillemots showed higher seroprevalence (77.1%+/-5.9) than black-legged kittiwakes (18.6%+/-6.7) and Atlantic puffins (22.6%+/-6.3). Immunoblot-banding patterns of positive individuals, reflecting the variability of Borrelia antigens against which Ab were produced, also differed among locations and species, and did not tightly match the prevalence of Borrelia phylogroups previously identified in ticks collected from the same host individuals. These results represent the first report of the widespread prevalence of Ab against Borrelia within an assemblage of seabird species and demonstrate that Borrelia is an integrated aspect in the interaction between seabirds and ticks. More detailed studies on the dynamics of Borrelia within and among seabird species at different spatial scales will now be required to better understand the implications of this interaction for seabird ecology and the epidemiology of Lyme disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Staszewski
- Centre of Excellence in Evolutionary Research, University of Jyväskylä, 40014 Jyväskylä, Finland.
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Boulinier T, Staszewski V. Maternal transfer of antibodies: raising immuno-ecology issues. Trends Ecol Evol 2008; 23:282-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2007.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2007] [Revised: 12/20/2007] [Accepted: 12/21/2007] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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Abstract
Little is known about the long-term persistence of specific antibodies (Ab) in natural host-parasite systems despite its potential epidemiological and ecological importance. In long-lived species, knowledge of the dynamics of individual immunological profiles can be important not only for interpreting serology results, but also for assessing transmission dynamics and the potential selective pressures acting on parasites. The aim of this paper was to investigate temporal variation in levels of specific Ab against the bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato in adults of a long-lived colonial seabird, the Black-legged Kittiwake Rissa tridactyla. In wild populations, adults are naturally exposed each breeding season to a Borrelia vector, the tick Ixodes uriae. Breeding birds were captured during four consecutive breeding seasons, and parasite infestation quantified. Using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and immunoblots, we found that the immunological profiles of anti-Borrelia Ab were highly repeatable among years, reflecting the interannual persistence of Ab levels. We nevertheless also observed that year-to-year changes of Ab levels were related to exposure to ticks in the previous year. The long-term persistence of Ab levels may be an important mechanism of individual protection against future exposure to the microparasite. It will also affect the availability of susceptible hosts, and thus the transmission dynamics of the bacterium. These results illustrate the need to consider the dynamics of the immune response in order to better understand the evolutionary ecology of host-parasite interactions in natural populations.
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Staszewski V, Gasparini J, McCoy KD, Tveraa T, Boulinier T. Evidence of an interannual effect of maternal immunization on the immune response of juveniles in a long-lived colonial bird. J Anim Ecol 2007; 76:1215-23. [PMID: 17922718 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2656.2007.01293.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Little is known about the maternal transfer of antibodies in natural host-parasite systems despite its possible evolutionary and ecological implications. In domestic animals, the maternal transfer of antibodies can enhance offspring survival via a temporary protection against parasites, but it can also interfere with the juvenile immune response to antigens. We tested the functional role of maternal antibodies in a natural population of a long-lived colonial seabird, the kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla), using a vaccine (Newcastle disease virus vaccine) to mimic parasite exposure combined with a cross-fostering design. We first investigated the role of prior maternal exposure on the interannual transmission of Ab to juveniles. We then tested the effect of these antibodies on the juvenile immune response to the same antigen. The results show that specific maternal antibodies were transferred to chicks 1 year after maternal exposure and that these antibodies were functional, i.e. they affected juvenile immunity. These results suggest that the role of maternal antibodies may depend on the timing and pattern of offspring exposure to parasites, along with the patterns of maternal exposure and the dynamics of her immune response. Overall, our approach underlines that although the transgenerational transfer of antibodies in natural populations is likely to have broad implications, the nature of these effects may vary dramatically among host-parasite systems, depending on the physiological mechanisms involved and the ecological context.
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Aubin T, Mathevon N, Staszewski V, Boulinier T. Acoustic communication in the Kittiwake Rissa tridactyla: potential cues for sexual and individual signatures in long calls. Polar Biol 2007. [DOI: 10.1007/s00300-007-0262-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Gasparini J, McCoy KD, Staszewski V, Haussy C, Boulinier T. Dynamics of anti-Borreliaantibodies in Black-legged Kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla) chicks suggest a maternal educational effect. CAN J ZOOL 2006. [DOI: 10.1139/z06-024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
In the presence of parasites, mothers can transfer specific immunoglobulins to their offspring. These antibodies are typically thought to provide protection until the juvenile produces its own immune response, but they may also act to educate the developing immune system so as to prepare the individual for future parasite challenge. We examined this hypothesis in a natural host–parasite system involving the Black-legged Kittiwake ( Rissa tridactyla (L., 1758)), the seabird tick ( Ixodes ( Ceratixodes ) uriae White, 1852), and the Lyme disease bacterium ( Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. (Johnston, 1984)). We compared the dynamics of anti-Borrelia antibodies in chicks between ages 5 and 20 days that received a large amount of maternal anti-Borrelia antibodies to those that did not. The results suggest that the presence of maternal antibodies against Borrelia increases the overall production of anti-Borrelia immunoglobulins by chicks and support the existence of an adaptive maternal effect. Experimental approaches are now called for to better appraise the ecological and evolutionary consequences of the maternal transfer of antibodies in host–parasite interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julien Gasparini
- Laboratoire d'Ecologie, CNRS UMR 7625, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, 75005 Paris, France
- Department of Biology, Queen's University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada
- Génétique et Evolution des Maladies Infectieuses, UMR 2724 CNRS–IRD, IRD, 34394 Montpellier, France
- Centre d’Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive, CNRS UMR 5175, 1919 Route de Mende, 34293 Montpellier, France
- Laboratoire de Parasitologie Evolutive, CNRS UMR 7103, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Karen D. McCoy
- Laboratoire d'Ecologie, CNRS UMR 7625, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, 75005 Paris, France
- Department of Biology, Queen's University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada
- Génétique et Evolution des Maladies Infectieuses, UMR 2724 CNRS–IRD, IRD, 34394 Montpellier, France
- Centre d’Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive, CNRS UMR 5175, 1919 Route de Mende, 34293 Montpellier, France
- Laboratoire de Parasitologie Evolutive, CNRS UMR 7103, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Vincent Staszewski
- Laboratoire d'Ecologie, CNRS UMR 7625, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, 75005 Paris, France
- Department of Biology, Queen's University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada
- Génétique et Evolution des Maladies Infectieuses, UMR 2724 CNRS–IRD, IRD, 34394 Montpellier, France
- Centre d’Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive, CNRS UMR 5175, 1919 Route de Mende, 34293 Montpellier, France
- Laboratoire de Parasitologie Evolutive, CNRS UMR 7103, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Claudy Haussy
- Laboratoire d'Ecologie, CNRS UMR 7625, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, 75005 Paris, France
- Department of Biology, Queen's University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada
- Génétique et Evolution des Maladies Infectieuses, UMR 2724 CNRS–IRD, IRD, 34394 Montpellier, France
- Centre d’Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive, CNRS UMR 5175, 1919 Route de Mende, 34293 Montpellier, France
- Laboratoire de Parasitologie Evolutive, CNRS UMR 7103, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Thierry Boulinier
- Laboratoire d'Ecologie, CNRS UMR 7625, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, 75005 Paris, France
- Department of Biology, Queen's University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada
- Génétique et Evolution des Maladies Infectieuses, UMR 2724 CNRS–IRD, IRD, 34394 Montpellier, France
- Centre d’Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive, CNRS UMR 5175, 1919 Route de Mende, 34293 Montpellier, France
- Laboratoire de Parasitologie Evolutive, CNRS UMR 7103, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, 75005 Paris, France
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent Staszewski
- Laboratoire d'Ecologie, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Unité Mixte de Recherche 7625, Université Pierre and Marie Curie, 7 Quai St Bernard, Paris, France
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