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Meinertz JR, Dawson VK, Gingerich WH, Cheng B, Tubergen MM. Liquid Chromatographic Determination of Sarafloxacin Residues in Channel Catfish Muscle Tissue. J AOAC Int 2020. [DOI: 10.1093/jaoac/77.4.871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
A liquid chromatographic method is described for the determination of sarafloxacin hydrochloride residues in channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) fillets. Sarafloxacin was extracted from fillet tissue with acetonitrile–water (1+1). The extract was centrifuged and the supernatant was partitioned with hexane. The aqueous fraction was filtered through a 0.45 μm filter and evaporated to dryness. The sample was redissolved with 20% acetonitrile–methanol (3 + 2) and 80% trifluoroacetic acid (0.1%), centrifuged, and filtered to remove proteins. Samples were analyzed by chromatography with gradient elution on a C18 column and with fluorescence detection (excitation at 280 nm and emission above 389 nm). Mean recoveries ranged from 85.4 to 104%, and relative standard deviations ranged from 1.06 to 5.58% in samples spiked at concentrations of 10.0–863.8 ng/g. The method detection limit for sarafloxacin was 1.4 ng/g.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Bea Cheng
- Abbott Laboratories, North Chicago, IL 60064
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2
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Stehly GR, Gingerich WH, Kiessling CR, Jeffrey H C. A Bridging Study for Oxytetracycline in the Edible Fillet of Rainbow Trout: Analysis by a Liquid Chromatographic Method and the Official Microbial Inhibition Assay. J AOAC Int 2020. [DOI: 10.1093/jaoac/82.4.866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Oxytetracycline (OTC) is a drug approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to control certain diseases in salmonids and catfish. OTC is also a likely control agent for diseases of other fish species and for other diseases of salmonids and catfish not currently on the label. One requirement for FDA to extend and expand the approval of this antibacterial agent to other fish species is residue depletion studies. The current regulatory method for OTC in fish tissue, based on microbial inhibition, lacks sensitivity and specificity. To conduct residue depletion studies for OTC in fish with a liquid chromatographic method, a bridging study was required to determine its relationship with the official microbial inhibition assay. Triplicate samples of rainbow trout fillet tissue fortified with OTC at 0.3,0.6,1.2,2.4,4.8, and 9.6 ppm and fillet tissue with incurred OTC at approximately 0.75,1.5, and 3.75 ppm were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and the microbial inhibition assay. The results indicated that the 2 methods are essentially identical in the tested range, with mean coefficients of variation of 1.05% for the HPLC method and 3.94% for the microbial inhibition assay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guy R Stehly
- U.S. Geological Survey, Upper Midwest Environmental Sciences Center, 2630 Fanta Reed Rd, La Crosse, WI 54603
| | - William H Gingerich
- U.S. Geological Survey, Upper Midwest Environmental Sciences Center, 2630 Fanta Reed Rd, La Crosse, WI 54603
| | - Connie R Kiessling
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Denver District Laboratory, PO Box 25087, Denver, CO 80225-0087
| | - Cutting Jeffrey H
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Denver District Laboratory, PO Box 25087, Denver, CO 80225-0087
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3
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Meinertz JR, Schmidt LJ, Stehly GR, Gingerich WH. Liquid Chromatographic Determination of para-Toluenesulfonamide in Edible Fillet Tissues from Three Species of Fish. J AOAC Int 2020. [DOI: 10.1093/jaoac/82.5.1064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Chloramine-T (N-sodium-N-chloro-p-toluene-sulfonamide) is a candidate therapeutic drug for treating bacterial gill disease, a predominant disease of a variety of fish species. Research has been initiated to obtain the U.S. Food and Drug Administration’s (FDA) approval for the use of chloramine-T on a variety of fish species. An attribute of a therapeutic aquaculture drug that must be characterized before the FDA approves its use is depletion of the drug’s marker residue (the drug’s parent compound or metabolite of highest concentration in an edible tissue). para-Toluenesulfonamide (p-TSA) is the primary degradation product and marker residue for chloramine-T in rainbow trout. To conduct residue depletion studies for chloramine-T in fish, a robust analytical method sensitive and specific for p-TSA residues in edible fillet tissue from a variety of fish was required. Homogenized fillet tissues from rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), walleye (Stizostedion vitreum), and channel cattish (Ictalurus punctatus) were fortified at nominal p-TSA concentrations of 17, 67, 200, 333, and 1000 ng/g. Samples were analyzed by isocratic reversed-phase liquid chromatography (LC) with absorbance detection at 226 nm. Mean recoveries of p-TSA ranged from 77 to 93.17%; relative standard deviations ranged from 1.5 to 14%; method quantitation limits ranged from 13 to 18 ng/g; and method detection limits ranged from 3.8 to 5.2 ng/g. The LC parameters produced p-TSA peaks without coelution of endogenous compounds and excluded chromatographic interference from at least 20 chemicals and drugs of potential use in aquaculture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffery R Meinertz
- U.S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division, Upper Midwest Environmental Sciences Center, 2630 Fanta Reed Rd, La Crosse, WI 54603
| | - Larry J Schmidt
- U.S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division, Upper Midwest Environmental Sciences Center, 2630 Fanta Reed Rd, La Crosse, WI 54603
| | - Guy R Stehly
- U.S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division, Upper Midwest Environmental Sciences Center, 2630 Fanta Reed Rd, La Crosse, WI 54603
| | - William H Gingerich
- U.S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division, Upper Midwest Environmental Sciences Center, 2630 Fanta Reed Rd, La Crosse, WI 54603
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4
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Abstract
Abstract
The approved use of oxytetracycline (OTC) in U.S. aquaculture is limited to specific diseases in salmonids and channel catfish. OTC may also be effective in controlling diseases in other fish species important to public aquaculture, but before approved use of OTC can be augmented, an analytical method for determining OTC in fillet tissue from multiple species of fish will be required to support residue depletion studies. The objective of this study was to develop and validate a liquid chromatographic (LC) method that is accurate, precise, and sensitive for OTC in edible fillets from multiple species of fish. Homogenized fillet tissues from walleye, Atlantic salmon, striped bass, white sturgeon, rainbow trout, and channel catfish were fortified with OTC at nominal concentrations of 10, 20, 100,1000, and 5000 ng/g. In tissues fortified with OTC at 100,1000, and 5000 ng/g, mean recoveries ranged from 83 to 90%, and relative standard deviations (RSDs) ranged from 0.9 to 5.8%. In all other tissues, mean recoveries ranged from 59 to 98%, and RSDs ranged from 3.3 to 20%. Method quantitation limits ranged from 6 to 22 ng/g for the 6 species. The LC parameters produced easily in teg ratable OTC peaks without coelution of endogenous compounds. The method is accurate, precise, and sensitive for OTC in fillet tissue from 6 species of fish from 5 phylogenetically diverse groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffery R Meinertz
- U.S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division, Upper Mississippi Science Center, PO Box 818, La Crosse, WI 54602-0818
| | - Guy R Stehly
- U.S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division, Upper Mississippi Science Center, PO Box 818, La Crosse, WI 54602-0818
| | - William H Gingerich
- U.S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division, Upper Mississippi Science Center, PO Box 818, La Crosse, WI 54602-0818
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5
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Abstract
Abstract
A liquid chromatographic method is described for analysis of benzocaine (BZ), a proposed fish anesthetic, in rainbow trout plasma. Mean recoveries of BZ from plasma samples fortified at 44–10 100 ng/mL were 96–100%. The method detection limit is 10 ng/mL, and the limit of quantitation is 37 ng/mL. Acetylation of BZ occurs in whole blood after storage at room temperature (i.e., 21 °C) for 10 min. However, no acetylation of BZ was detected in plasma samples held at room temperature for 4 h. Mean method precision for plasma samples with incurred BZ residue is similar to that for fortified samples in the same concentration range (relative standard deviations of 0.9 and 1.2%, respectively).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeff A Bernardy
- National Biological Service, Upper Mississippi Science Center, PO Box 818, La Crosse, WI 54602-0818
| | - Kathleen S Coleman
- National Biological Service, Upper Mississippi Science Center, PO Box 818, La Crosse, WI 54602-0818
| | - Guy R Stehly
- National Biological Service, Upper Mississippi Science Center, PO Box 818, La Crosse, WI 54602-0818
| | - William H Gingerich
- National Biological Service, Upper Mississippi Science Center, PO Box 818, La Crosse, WI 54602-0818
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6
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Meinertz JR, Stehly GR, Gingerich WH, Greseth SL. Performance of a Proposed Determinative Method for p-TSA in Rainbow Trout Fillet Tissue and Bridging the Proposed Method with a Method for Total Chloramine-T Residues in Rainbow Trout Fillet Tissue. J AOAC Int 2019. [DOI: 10.1093/jaoac/84.5.1332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Chloramine-T is an effective drug for controlling fish mortality caused by bacterial gill disease. As part of the data required for approval of chloramine-T use in aquaculture, depletion of the chloramine-T marker residue (para-toluenesulfonamide; p-TSA) from edible fillet tissue of fish must be characterized. Declaration of p-TSA as the marker residue for chloramine-T in rainbow trout was based on total residue depletion studies using a method that used time consuming and cumbersome techniques. A simple and robust method recently developed is being proposed as a determinative method for p-TSA in fish fillet tissue. The proposed determinative method was evaluated by comparing accuracy and precision data with U.S. Food and Drug Administration criteria and by bridging the method to the former method for chloramine-T residues. The method accuracy and precision fulfilled the criteria for determinative methods; accuracy was 92.6, 93.4, and 94.6% with samples fortified at 0.5X, 1X, and 2X the expected 1000 ng/g tolerance limit for p-TSA, respectively. Method precision with tissue containing incurred p-TSA at a nominal concentration of 1000 ng/g ranged from 0.80 to 8.4%. The proposed determinative method was successfully bridged with the former method. The concentrations of p-TSA developed with the proposed method were not statistically different at p < 0.05 from p-TSA concentrations developed with the former method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffery R Meinertz
- U.S. Geological Survey, Upper Midwest Environmental Sciences Center, Biological Resources Division, 2630 Fanta Reed Rd, La Crosse, WI 54603
| | - Guy R Stehly
- U.S. Geological Survey, Upper Midwest Environmental Sciences Center, Biological Resources Division, 2630 Fanta Reed Rd, La Crosse, WI 54603
| | - William H Gingerich
- U.S. Geological Survey, Upper Midwest Environmental Sciences Center, Biological Resources Division, 2630 Fanta Reed Rd, La Crosse, WI 54603
| | - Shari L Greseth
- U.S. Geological Survey, Upper Midwest Environmental Sciences Center, Biological Resources Division, 2630 Fanta Reed Rd, La Crosse, WI 54603
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7
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Gaikowski MP, Wolf JC, Endris RG, Gingerich WH. Safety of Aquaflor (Florfenicol, 50% Type A Medicated Article), Administered in Feed to Channel Catfish, Ictalurus punctatus. Toxicol Pathol 2016; 31:689-97. [PMID: 14585738 DOI: 10.1080/01926230390241828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Aquaflor, a feed premix containing the broad spectrum antibacterial agent florfenicol (50% w/w), is being developed for use to control enteric septicemia (ESC) in channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus caused by the gram-negative enterobacterium Edwardsiella ictaluri. The recommended dose of Aquaflor to control ESC is 10 mg/kg body weight (BW)/day for 10 days. The study objective was to determine the safety of Aquaflor administered in feed to channel catfish at doses of 0 (control), 10, 30, and 50 mg/kg BW/day for 20 consecutive days. Parameters evaluated included daily mortality, behavioral (appetite, distribution, flight/fright response), and water chemistry observations, initial and terminal weight measurements, and gross and microscopic pathology. Medicated feed consumption was 67—86% of target with group mean doses of 8.5 mg/kg BW/day, 24.6 mg/kg BW/day, and 34.9 mg/kg BW/day. There were no mortalities or clinically observable changes noted at any of the dose levels tested. Aquaflor-related changes were limited to the food consumption and histopathology data. Although Aquaflor-related decreased feed consumption was noted in the 30 and 50 mg/kg BW/day groups, there were no differences in fish growth among the treatment groups. Aquaflor-related histopathology findings were limited to a histomorphologically evident dose-dependent decrease in hematopoietic/lymphopoietic tissue in the anterior kidneys, posterior kidneys, and spleens of channel catfish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark P Gaikowski
- US Geological Survey, Upper Midwest Environmental Sciences Center, La Crosse, Wisconsin 54603, USA.
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8
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Hubert TD, Bernardy JA, Vue C, Dawson VK, Boogaard MA, Schreier TM, Gingerich WH. Residues of the lampricides 3-trifluoromethyl-4-nitrophenol and niclosamide in muscle tissue of rainbow trout. J Agric Food Chem 2005; 53:5342-6. [PMID: 15969516 DOI: 10.1021/jf050156o] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Rainbow trout (Oncorhyncus mykiss) were exposed to the (14)C-labeled lampricide 3-trifluoromethyl-4-nitrophenol (TFM) (2.1 mg/L) or niclosamide (0.055 mg/L) in an aerated static water bath for 24 h. Fish were sacrificed immediately after exposure. Subsamples of skin-on muscle tissue were analyzed for residues of the lampricides. The primary residues in muscle tissue from fish exposed to TFM were parent TFM (1.08 +/- 0.82 nmol/g) and TFM-glucuronide (0.44 +/- 0.24 nmol/g). Muscle tissue from fish exposed to niclosamide contained niclosamide (1.42 +/- 0.51 nmol/g), niclosamide-glucuronide (0.0644 +/- 0.0276 nmol/g), and a metabolite not previously reported, niclosamide sulfate ester (1.12 +/- 0.33 nmol/g).
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Affiliation(s)
- Terrance D Hubert
- Biological Resources Division, Upper Midwest Environmental Sciences Center, US Geological Survey, La Crosse, Wisconsin 54603, USA.
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9
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Abstract
A series of experiments analyzed the kinetics and mechanisms of [(14)C]niclosamide degradation. The aerobic aquatic metabolism of [(14)C]niclosamide was studied in nonsterile river water/sediment mixtures. Test systems, maintained under aerobic conditions, were treated with niclosamide and incubated in the dark at 25.0 +/- 1.0 degrees C for 30 days. Half-lives of 4.9 and 5.4 days were calculated for the chlorosalicylic acid- and chloronitroaniline-labeled test systems, respectively. From 0 to 21 days after treatment (DAT), the only metabolism product observed in either test system was aminoniclosamide. At the final sampling interval, five peaks were resolved from the chlorosalicylic acid label, and three peaks were resolved from the chloronitroaniline label test substance. By 30 DAT, sediment-bound residues represented approximately 70% of the observed radioactivity. For the anaerobic aquatic metabolism of [(14)C]niclosamide, test systems were incubated under anaerobic conditions for 365 days. Half-lives of 0.65 day for the chlorosalicylic acid label and 2.79 days for the chloronitroaniline label were calculated. From 0 to 3 DAT, niclosamide was first transformed into aminoniclosamide. Aminoniclosamide is readily formed, as it was observed in the chlorosalicylic acid label 0 DAT sampling. Several minor metabolites were observed in the water and sediment extracts. None of these metabolites were formed to a significant amount until the parent niclosamide dissipated below the detection limit. Two of the byproducts from these metabolism studies are polar unknowns eluting at 3 and 5 min by HPLC, similar to the unknowns observed in aqueous photolysis studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phillip W Graebing
- Pittsburgh Environmental Research Laboratory, Inc., Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15238, USA
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10
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Abstract
The photodegradation of [(14)C]niclosamide was studied in sterile, pH 5, 7, and 9 buffered aqueous solutions under artificial sunlight at 25.0 +/- 1.0 degrees C. Photolysis in pH 5 buffer is 4.3 times faster than in pH 9 buffer and 1.5 times faster than in pH 7 buffer. In the dark controls, niclosamide degraded only in the pH 5 buffer. After 360 h of continuous irradiation in pH 9 buffer, the chromatographic pattern of the degradates was the same regardless of which ring contained the radiolabel. An HPLC method was developed that confirmed these degradates to be carbon dioxide and two- and four-carbon aliphatic acids formed by cleavage of both aromatic rings. Carbon dioxide was the major degradate, comprising approximately 40% of the initial radioactivity in the 360 h samples from both labels. The other degradates formed were oxalic acid, maleic acid, glyoxylic acid, and glyoxal. In addition, in the chloronitroaniline-labeled irradiated test solution, 2-chloro-4-nitroaniline was observed and identified after 48 h of irradiation but was not detected thereafter. No other aromatic compounds were isolated or observed in either labeled test system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phillip W Graebing
- Pittsburgh Environmental Research Laboratory, Inc, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15238, USA
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11
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Vue C, Schmidt LJ, Stehly GR, Gingerich WH. Liquid chromatographic determination of florfenicol in the plasma of multiple species of fish. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2002; 780:111-7. [PMID: 12383486 DOI: 10.1016/s1570-0232(02)00441-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
A simple method was developed for determining florfenicol concentration in a small volume (250 micro l) of plasma from five phylogenetically diverse species of freshwater fish. Florfenicol was isolated from the plasma matrix through C(18) solid-phase extraction and quantified by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography with UV detection. The accuracy (84-104%), precision (%RSD<or=8), and sensitivity (quantitation limit <30 ng/ml) of the method indicate its usefulness for conducting pharmacokinetic studies on a variety of freshwater fish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chue Vue
- US Geological Survey, Upper Midwest Environmental Sciences Center, 2630 Fanta Reed Road, La Crosse, WI 54603, USA.
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12
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Dawson VK, Schreier TM, Boogaard MA, Spanjers NJ, Gingerich WH. Rapid loss of lampricide from catfish and rainbow trout following routine treatment. J Agric Food Chem 2002; 50:6780-6785. [PMID: 12405775 DOI: 10.1021/jf020443h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) were exposed to 3-trifluoromethyl-4-nitrophenol (TFM) and Bayluscide (niclosamide) during a sea lamprey control treatment of the Ford River, located in the upper peninsula of Michigan. Caged fish were exposed to a nominal concentration of 0.02 mg/L of niclosamide for a period of approximately 12 h. Samples of fillet tissue were collected from each fish species before treatment and at 6, 12, 18, 24, 48, 96, and 192 h following the arrival of the block of chemical at the exposure site. The fish were dissected, homogenized, extracted, and analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography. The major residues found in the fillet tissues were TFM and niclosamide. Niclosamide concentrations were highest 12 h after arrival of the chemical block for rainbow trout (0.0395 +/- 0.0251 microg/g) and 18 h after arrival of the chemical block for channel catfish (0.0465 +/- 0.0212 microg/g). Residues decreased rapidly after the block of lampricide had passed and were below the detection limits in fillets of rainbow trout within 24 h and channel catfish within 96 h after the arrival of the lampricide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Verdel K Dawson
- Upper Midwest Environmental Sciences Center, Biological Resources Division, U.S. Geological Survey, 2630 Fanta Reed Road, La Crosse, Wisconsin 54603, USA.
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13
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Vue C, Bernardy JA, Hubert TD, Gingerich WH, Stehly GR. Relatively rapid loss of lampricide residues from fillet tissue of fish after routine treatment. J Agric Food Chem 2002; 50:6786-6789. [PMID: 12405776 DOI: 10.1021/jf0204708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The selective sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus) larvicide 3-trifluoromethyl-4-nitrophenol (TFM) is currently used to control parasitic sea lampreys in tributaries to the Great Lakes basin. The concentration and persistence of TFM and its major metabolite, TFM glucuronide (TFM-glu), was determined in fillet tissue of fish after a typical stream application. Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) were exposed to a nominal concentration of 12.6 nmol/mL TFM for about 12 h during a sea lamprey control treatment of the Ford River in Michigan. Concentrations of TFM and TFM-glu were greatest in the fillet tissues during the exposure period, with greater residues in channel catfish (wet wt; mean, 6.95 nmol/g TFM; mean, 2.40 nmol/g TFM-glu) than in rainbow trout (wet wt; mean, 1.45 nmol/g TFM; mean, 0.93 nmol/g TFM-glu). After the exposure period, residues in both species decreased by 90-99% within 6-12 h and were less than the quantitation limit (<0.03 nmol/g) within 36 h.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chue Vue
- U.S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division, Upper Midwest Environmental Sciences Center, 2630 Fanta Reed Road, La Crosse, Wisconsin 54603, USA.
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Meinertz JR, Stehly GR, Gingerich WH, Greseth SL. Performance of a proposed determinative method for p-TSA in rainbow trout fillet tissue and bridging the proposed method with a method for total chloramine-T residues in rainbow trout fillet tissue. J AOAC Int 2001; 84:1332-6. [PMID: 11601449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/21/2023]
Abstract
Chloramine-T is an effective drug for controlling fish mortality caused by bacterial gill disease. As part of the data required for approval of chloramine-T use in aquaculture, depletion of the chloramine-T marker residue (para-toluenesulfonamide; p-TSA) from edible fillet tissue of fish must be characterized. Declaration of p-TSA as the marker residue for chloramine-T in rainbow trout was based on total residue depletion studies using a method that used time consuming and cumbersome techniques. A simple and robust method recently developed is being proposed as a determinative method for p-TSA in fish fillet tissue. The proposed determinative method was evaluated by comparing accuracy and precision data with U.S. Food and Drug Administration criteria and by bridging the method to the former method for chloramine-T residues. The method accuracy and precision fulfilled the criteria for determinative methods; accuracy was 92.6, 93.4, and 94.6% with samples fortified at 0.5X, 1X, and 2X the expected 1000 ng/g tolerance limit for p-TSA, respectively. Method precision with tissue containing incurred p-TSA at a nominal concentration of 1000 ng/g ranged from 0.80 to 8.4%. The proposed determinative method was successfully bridged with the former method. The concentrations of p-TSA developed with the proposed method were not statistically different at p < 0.05 from p-TSA concentrations developed with the former method.
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Affiliation(s)
- J R Meinertz
- U.S. Geological Survey, Upper Midwest Environmental Sciences Center, Biological Resources Division, La Crosse, WI 54603, USA
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15
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Stehly GR, Meinertz JR, Gingerich WH. Effects of temperature on the elimination of benzocaine and acetylated benzocaine residues from the edible fillet of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Food Addit Contam 2000; 17:387-92. [PMID: 10945105 DOI: 10.1080/026520300404798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
The effect of temperature (7 degrees C and 16 degrees C) on the extent of accumulation and the elimination of benzocaine (BNZ) and its metabolite, acetylated benzocaine (AcBNZ), in the fillet tissue of rainbow trout was investigated. Residues were measured after bath exposure to an anesthetizing concentration of benzocaine (30 mg/l for 5 min) followed by a maintenance concentration (15 mg/l for 30 min). Immediately after exposure, the BNZ concentration in fillet tissue was approximately 27 micrograms/g at both temperatures; AcBNZ was 0.3 microgram/g at 7 degrees C and 0.6 microgram/g at 16 degrees C. The rates for elimination (alpha and beta) of BNZ and AcBNZ were not significantly different between the two temperatures. Terminal half-lives of elimination for BNZ were 1.62 h at 7 degrees C and 1.63 h at 16 degrees C; half-lives for AcBNZ were 2.36 h at 7 degrees C and 2.77 h at 16 degrees C.
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Affiliation(s)
- G R Stehly
- US Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division, Upper Midwest Environmental Sciences Center, La Crosse, Wisconsin 54603, USA.
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16
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Meinertz JR, Schmidt LJ, Stehly GR, Gingerich WH. Liquid chromatographic determination of para-toluenesulfonamide in edible fillet tissues from three species of fish. J AOAC Int 1999; 82:1064-70. [PMID: 10513008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/14/2023]
Abstract
Chloramine-T (N-sodium-N-chloro-p-toluene-sulfonamide) is a candidate therapeutic drug for treating bacterial gill disease, a predominant disease of a variety of fish species. Research has been initiated to obtain the U.S. Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) approval for the use of chloramine-T on a variety of fish species. An attribute of a therapeutic aquaculture drug that must be characterized before the FDA approves its use is depletion of the drug's marker residue (the drug's parent compound or metabolite of highest concentration in an edible tissue). para-Toluenesulfonamide (p-TSA) is the primary degradation product and marker residue for chloramine-T in rainbow trout. To conduct residue depletion studies for chloramine-T in fish, a robust analytical method sensitive and specific for p-TSA residues in edible fillet tissue from a variety of fish was required. Homogenized fillet tissues from rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), walleye (Stizostedion vitreum), and channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) were fortified at nominal p-TSA concentrations of 17, 67, 200, 333, and 1000 ng/g. Samples were analyzed by isocratic reversed-phase liquid chromatography (LC) with absorbance detection at 226 nm. Mean recoveries of p-TSA ranged from 77 to 93.17%; relative standard deviations ranged from 1.5 to 14%; method quantitation limits ranged from 13 to 18 ng/g; and method detection limits ranged from 3.8 to 5.2 ng/g. The LC parameters produced p-TSA peaks without coelution of endogenous compounds and excluded chromatographic interference from at least 20 chemicals and drugs of potential use in aquaculture.
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Affiliation(s)
- J R Meinertz
- U.S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division, Upper Midwest Environmental Sciences Center, La Crosse, WI 54603, USA
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Stehly GR, Gingerich WH, Kiessling CR, Cutting JH. A bridging study for oxytetracycline in the edible fillet of rainbow trout: analysis by a liquid chromatographic method and the official microbial inhibition assay. J AOAC Int 1999; 82:866-70. [PMID: 10444825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/13/2023]
Abstract
Oxytetracycline (OTC) is a drug approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to control certain diseases in salmonids and catfish. OTC is also a likely control agent for diseases of other fish species and for other diseases of salmonids and catfish not currently on the label. One requirement for FDA to extend and expand the approval of this antibacterial agent to other fish species is residue depletion studies. The current regulatory method for OTC in fish tissue, based on microbial inhibition, lacks sensitivity and specificity. To conduct residue depletion studies for OTC in fish with a liquid chromatographic method, a bridging study was required to determine its relationship with the official microbial inhibition assay. Triplicate samples of rainbow trout fillet tissue fortified with OTC at 0.3, 0.6, 1.2, 2.4, 4.8, and 9.6 ppm and fillet tissue with incurred OTC at approximately 0.75, 1.5, and 3.75 ppm were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and the microbial inhibition assay. The results indicated that the 2 methods are essentially identical in the tested range, with mean coefficients of variation of 1.05% for the HPLC method and 3.94% for the microbial inhibition assay.
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Affiliation(s)
- G R Stehly
- U.S. Geological Survey, Upper Midwest Environmental Sciences Center, La Crosse, WI 54603, USA
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Gingerich WH, Stehly GR, Clark KJ, Hayton WL. Crop grouping: a proposal for public aquaculture. Vet Hum Toxicol 1998; 40 Suppl 2:24-31. [PMID: 9823579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Abstract
Production in US aquaculture is limited by the few FDA-approved drugs available for use. The problem is compounded by the high costs and long time frames associated with extending the approved label of an existing drug to treat additional fish species. An FDA approved crop grouping plan could significantly reduce the costs associated with extending or expanding the label of a currently approved drug to other species. Before FDA could sanction such a plan, they require scientific data with which to make an informed decision. Under a crop grouping plan, a surrogate fish species would represent a single group of fish for the purposes of gaining drug approvals. The concept, if practical, would conserve substantial public resources expended to gain drug approvals and yet give regulators assurance that the extended label use provides necessary regulatory safeguards to protect human food safety and the environment. A crop grouping plan should include development of a data base that is sufficiently sensitive to discriminate differences of one group from another and yet would be able to identify potential similarities between like-species for grouping. The proposed crop grouping action plan should include data sets for fish grouped by temperature preference, activity level, and phylogenetic classification. Initially, two representative species would be identified for testing as surrogates for candidate groups; rainbow trout representing a coldwater, active, and conservative phylogenetic group, and channel catfish representing a warmwater, relatively sedentary and more phylogenetically advanced group. Additional species representing more primitive (sturgeon) and more advanced (striped bass and walleye) groups would be added. A waterborne (benzocaine) and an orally administered drug (sarafloxacin) would initially be tested among the major species groups. The integrity of the group will be tested by comparing the variability of response between major species against variability within cohort species identified for inclusion within each specific group.
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Affiliation(s)
- W H Gingerich
- National Fisheries Research Center, National Biological Survey, La Crosse, WI 54602-0818, USA
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Meinertz JR, Stehly GR, Gingerich WH. Liquid chromatographic determination of oxytetracycline in edible fish fillets from six species of fish. J AOAC Int 1998; 81:702-8. [PMID: 9680693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The approved use of oxytetracycline (OTC) in U.S. aquaculture is limited to specific diseases in salmonids and channel catfish. OTC may also be effective in controlling diseases in other fish species important to public aquaculture, but before approved use of OTC can be augmented, an analytical method for determining OTC in fillet tissue from multiple species of fish will be required to support residue depletion studies. The objective of this study was to develop and validate a liquid chromatographic (LC) method that is accurate, precise, and sensitive for OTC in edible fillets from multiple species of fish. Homogenized fillet tissues from walleye, Atlantic salmon, striped bass, white sturgeon, rainbow trout, and channel catfish were fortified with OTC at nominal concentrations of 10, 20, 100, 1000, and 5000 ng/g. In tissues fortified with OTC at 100, 1000, and 5000 ng/g, mean recoveries ranged from 83 to 90%, and relative standard deviations (RSDs) ranged from 0.9 to 5.8%. In all other tissues, mean recoveries ranged from 59 to 98%, and RSDs ranged from 3.3 to 20%. Method quantitation limits ranged from 6 to 22 ng/g for the 6 species. The LC parameters produced easily integratable OTC peaks without coelution of endogenous compounds. The method is accurate, precise, and sensitive for OTC in fillet tissue from 6 species of fish from 5 phylogenetically diverse groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- J R Meinertz
- U.S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division, Upper Mississippi Science Center, La Crosse, WI 54602-0818, USA
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Stehly GR, Meinertz JR, Gingerich WH. Effect of temperature on the pharmacokinetics of benzocaine in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) after bath exposures. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 1998; 21:121-7. [PMID: 9597649 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2885.1998.00109.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The pharmacokinetics of benzocaine during bath exposures at 1 mg/L were determined in rainbow trout acclimated at 6 degrees C, 12 degrees C or 18 degrees C for at least 1 month. Individual fish were exposed to benzocaine in a recirculating system for 4 h and pharmacokinetic parameters were estimated in a unique manner from the concentration of benzocaine in the bath water vs. time curve. Elimination from plasma was also determined after the 4 h exposure. The uptake clearance and metabolic clearance increased with increased acclimatization temperatures (uptake clearance 581 +/- 179 mL/min/kg at 6 degrees C and 1154 +/- 447 mL/min/kg at 18 degrees C; metabolic clearance 15.2 +/- 4.1 mL/min/kg at 6 degrees C and 22.3 +/- 4.2 mL/min/kg at 18 degrees C). The apparent volume of distribution had a trend for increasing with temperature that was not significant at the 5% level (2369 +/- 678 mL/kg at 6 degrees C to 3260 +/- 1182 mL/kg at 18 degrees C). The elimination half-life of benzocaine in plasma was variable and did not differ significantly with temperature (60.8 +/- 30.3 min at 6 degrees C to 35.9 +/- 13.0 min at 12 degrees C). Elimination of benzocaine from rainbow trout is relatively rapid and even more rapid at higher acclimatization temperatures based on calculated metabolic clearances and measured plasma concentrations, but was not evident by measurement of terminal plasma half-lifes.
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Affiliation(s)
- G R Stehly
- U.S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division, Upper Mississippi Science Center, La Crosse, WI 54602-0818, USA.
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Bernardy JA, Coleman KS, Stehly GR, Gingerich WH. Determination of benzocaine in rainbow trout plasma. J AOAC Int 1996; 79:623-7. [PMID: 8634529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
A liquid chromatographic method is described for analysis of benzocaine (BZ), a proposed fish anesthetic, in rainbow trout plasma. Mean recoveries of BZ from plasma samples fortified at 44-10 100 ng/mL were 96-100%. The method detection limit is 10 ng/mL, and the limit of quantitation is 37 ng/mL. Acetylation of BZ occurs in whole blood after storage at room temperature (i.e., 21 degrees C) for 10 min. However, no acetylation of BZ was detected in plasma samples held at room temperature for 4 h. Mean method precision for plasma samples with incurred BZ residue is similar to that for fortified samples in the same concentration range (relative standard deviations of 0.9 and 1.2%, respectively).
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Affiliation(s)
- J A Bernardy
- National Biological Service, Upper Mississippi Science Center, La Crosse, WI 54602-0818, USA
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Steingraeber MT, Gingerich WH. Hatching, growth, ion accumulation, and skeletal ossification of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) alevins in acidic soft waters. CAN J ZOOL 1991. [DOI: 10.1139/z91-317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Brook trout eyed eggs and subsequent alevins were exposed to pH 5.0, 6.5, and 7.0 in soft reconstituted water and to pH 8.2 in hard well water for up to 72 d. Hatching was delayed and hatching success reduced (p < 0.05) in eyed eggs exposed to pH 5.0 and 6.5. Alevin growth was not affected. Fish in all treatments rapidly accumulated monovalent ions in a similar pattern and in the order of Na+ > K+ > Cl− during yolk absorption and early exogenous feeding. Whole-body monovalent ion concentrations were reduced for short periods during yolk absorption in alevins exposed to pH 6.5 and throughout most of the experiment for those exposed to pH 5.0. Whole-body Mg2+ concentrations were not affected by treatment pH and remained near their median hatch level throughout the exposure. The whole-body concentration of Ca2+ was reduced in fish exposed to pH 5.0, particularly near the end of the experiment. Calcium accumulation in fish was influenced by the interaction of pH and time at pH 5.0 but not at the other pH levels. Alevins exposed to pH 5.0 experienced delayed ossification of skeletal structures associated with feeding, respiration, and locomotion that usually persisted for up to 10 d. The detection of skeletal abnormalities early in life might aid in identifying fish populations at risk in acidified waters.
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Abstract
1. Branchial and urinary elimination of benzocaine residues was evaluated in adult rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, given a single dorsal aortic dose of 14C-benzocaine hydrochloride. 2. Branchial elimination of benzocaine residues was rapid and accounted for 59.2% of the dose during the first 3 h after dosing. Renal elimination of radioactivity was considerably slower; the kidney excreted 2.7% dose within 3 h and 9.0% within 24 h. Gallbladder bile contained 2.0% dose 24 h after injection. 3. Of the radioactivity in radiochromatograms from water taken 3 min after injection, 87.3% was benzocaine and 12.7% was N-acetylated benzocaine. After 60 min, 32.7% was benzocaine and 67.3% was N-acetylated benzocaine. 4. Of the radioactivity in radiochromatograms from urine taken 1 h after dosing, 7.6% was para-aminobenzoic acid, 59.7% was N-acetylated para-aminobenzoic acid, 19.5% was benzocaine, and 8.0% was N-acetylated benzocaine. The proportion of the radioactivity in urine changed with time so that by 20 h, 1.0% was para-aminobenzoic acid and 96.6% was N-acetylated para-aminobenzoic acid. 5. Benzocaine and a more hydrophobic metabolite, N-acetylated benzocaine, were eliminated primarily through the gills; renal and biliary pathways were less significant elimination routes for benzocaine residues.
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Affiliation(s)
- J R Meinertz
- Department of Biology, University of Wisconsin, La Crosse 54601
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Abstract
The effects of surgery and anesthesia on concentrations of plasma epinephrine (E), norepinephrine (NE), and dopamine (DA) were investigated in rainbow trout fitted with dorsal aorta cannulae. Baseline catecholamines (CA) concentrations, established in resting rainbow trout, were 1.55 +/- 0.90 pmol/ml (mean +/- SD) for E, 2.07 +/- 1.26 for NE, and 1.33 +/- 0.87 for DA. These values were based on the pooled analyses of five individual fish taken over seven different sampling periods. The E:NE ratio in resting fish was always less than 1.0. In a second experiment, fish were subjected to dorsal aorta cannulation and sequential blood samples were taken immediately after surgery, and 6, 24, and 48 hr later. Plasma E concentrations were 36 times greater than baseline values in the first sample; NE was 15 times greater and DA was 41 times greater. After surgery, plasma concentrations of all CAs fell rapidly but values were still higher than baseline 6 hr after surgery, then were near baseline at 24 and 48 hr after surgery. The E:NE ratio was about 3.0 immediately after surgery, dropped to 1.8 at 6 hr, and was about 1.0 at 24 and 48 hr. In a third experiment, plasma CAs were determined in a group of five animals anesthetized with tricaine methanesulfonate (100 mg/ml) to advanced anesthesia, and then allowed to recover in flowing well water over a 12-hr observation period. Plasma E and NE concentrations in the fish during early anesthesia (1.14 +/- 0.14 min) were not significantly different from preanesthesia values.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
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Affiliation(s)
- W H Gingerich
- United States Fish and Wildlife Service, National Fisheries Research Center, La Crosse, Wisconsin 54602
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Gingerich WH, Pityer RA. Comparison of whole body and tissue blood volumes in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) with(125)I bovine serum albumin and (51)Cr-erythrocyte tracers. Fish Physiol Biochem 1989; 6:39-47. [PMID: 24226898 DOI: 10.1007/bf01875602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Total, packed cell and, plasma volume estimates were made for the whole body and selected tissues of rainbow trout by the simultaneous injection of radiolabelled trout erythrocyte ((51)Cr-RBC) and radioiodinated bovine serum albumin ((125)I-BSA) tracers. Blood volumes were estimated with both markers separately by the tracer-hematocrit method and as the combination of the(51)Cr-RBC packed cell and(125)I-BSA plasma volumes. Mean whole body blood volume was significantly less when calculated from the(51)Cr-RBC tracer data (3.52±0.78 ml/100 g; ±SD) than when calculated with the(125)I-BSA tracer (5.06±0.86 ml/100 g) or as the sum of the two volumes combined (4.49±0.60 ml/100 g). The whole body hematocrit (28±5%), estimated as the quotient of the(51)Cr-RBC volume divided by the sum of the(125)I-BSA and the(51)Cr-RBC volumes, also was significantly less than the dorsal aortic microhematocrit (36±4%). Estimates of total blood volumes in most tissues were significantly smaller when calculated from the(51)Cr-RBC data than when calculated by the other two methods. Tissue blood volumes were greatest in highly vascularized and well perfused tissues and least in poorly vascularized tissues. The relative degree of vascularization among tissues generally remained the same regardless of whether the red cell or the plasma tracer was used to calculated blood volume. It is not clear whether the expanded plasma volume is the result of the distribution of erythrocyte-poor blood into the secondary circulation or the result of extravascular exchange of plasma proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- W H Gingerich
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Fishery Research Center, PO Box 818, 54602-0818, La Crosse, Wisconsin
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Gingerich WH, Pityer RA, Rach JJ. Estimates of plasma, packed cell and total blood volume in tissues of the rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). Comp Biochem Physiol A Comp Physiol 1987; 87:251-6. [PMID: 2886266 DOI: 10.1016/0300-9629(87)90119-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
1. Total blood volume and relative blood volumes in selected tissues were determined in non-anesthetized, confined rainbow trout by using 51Cr-labelled trout erythrocytes as a vascular space marker. 2. Mean total blood volume was estimated to be 4.09 +/- 0.55 ml/100 g, or about 75% of that estimated with the commonly used plasma space marker Evans blue dye. 3. Relative tissue blood volumes were greatest in highly perfused tissues such as kidney, gills, brain and liver and least in mosaic muscle. 4. Estimates of tissue vascular spaces, made using radiolabelled erythrocytes, were only 25-50% of those based on plasma space markers. 5. The consistently smaller vascular volumes obtained with labelled erythrocytes could be explained by assuming that commonly used plasma space markers diffuse from the vascular compartment.
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Gingerich WH, Weber LJ, Larson RE. The effect of carbon tetrachloride on hepatic accumulation, metabolism, and biliary excretion of sulfobromophthalein in rainbow trout. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1978; 43:159-67. [PMID: 625758 DOI: 10.1016/s0041-008x(78)80040-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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Gingerich WH, Weber LJ, Larson RE. Carbon tetrachloride-induced retention of sulfobromophthalein in the plasma of rainbow trout. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1978; 43:147-58. [PMID: 625757 DOI: 10.1016/s0041-008x(78)80039-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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Gingerich WH, Weber LJ, Larson RE. Hepatic accumulation, metabolism and biliary excretion of sulfobromophthalein by rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). Comp Biochem Physiol C Comp Pharmacol 1977; 58:113-20. [PMID: 23923 DOI: 10.1016/0306-4492(77)90090-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Halstead EG, Quevedo RA, Gingerich WH. A quality control program for the bacteriology laboratory. Am J Med Technol 1971; 37:15-20. [PMID: 5115997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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